My Thoughts On The Coronation

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Archbishop of Canterbury, coronation, Crown of St. Edward, Gold State Coach, Imperial State Crown., King Charles III of the United Kingdom, the prince of Wales, Westminster Abbey

From The Emperor’s Desk:

I really needed a day or two to process my thoughts and feelings on this week’s coronation of King Charles III.

First of all, I was overwhelmed with the sense of the magnitude and grandeur of it all and how I was witnessing a ceremony that has been performed in that exact location gong back many centuries! It could have been King Edward I or Richard III or Charles II sitting there! Continuity and how it connects us to the past is, for me, one of cornerstones of the concept of monarchy.

For example, the Crown of St. Edward that was used to crown King Charles II and was specifically made for his coronation. This crown sat on the heads of seven monarchs (including King Charles). After King Charles II James II-VII (1685), William III (1689), George V (1911), George VI (1937) and Elizabeth II (1953) have all been crowned with this historic relic.

Mary II and Anne were crowned with small diamond crowns of their own; George I, George II, George III and William IV were crowned with the State Crown of George I. King George IV was crowned with a new large diamond crown made specially for the occasion; and Queen Victoria and Edward VII chose not to use St. Edward’s Crown because of its weight and instead used the lighter 1838 version of the Imperial State Crown.

One of the things that surprised me about St Edward’s Crown was that to me it looked dull and not shiny gold like I thought it was!

Yes I hope the king will continue to wear the Imperial State Crown at the opening of Parliament. What is interesting to me is that the arches were not altered for the coronation.

If you look at pictures of the Imperial State Crown from Queen Victoria to George sixth The arches were raised, or at least up higher. I’ve read where the arches were lowered for Queen Elizabeth II to give it a more feminine look.

So I was thinking that the arches would have been returned to a little more higher position for the king. Although I love that crown it does seem a little odd on Charles and it may take a little bit to getting used to. I hate to say it but it did seem a little bit feminine in my opinion.

Here is a link to my blog entry. If you scroll down a bit you can see the picture of king Edward VII George VI and Queen Elizabeth II wearing the Imperial State Crown and see how the arches are set.

https://wp.me/p2pver-3Ds

I’ve also heard some people say that Queen Camilla should have worn a smaller crown and that this one seemed a bit too big for her head and in that case I do agree. So I do hope she wears it without the arches for the state opening of Parliament.

The British do pomp extremely well and the coronation was very evident of that. I really appreciated seeing The Jubilee Coach used to bring the king and queen to Westminster Abbey. I was especially amazed to see The Return of the newly crowned king and queen back to Buckingham Palace in the 1761 gold coach built during the reign of King George III. With the massive amount of soldiers and guards along the way it was quite an impressive spectacle!

Although a spectacular as it was I need to take into account the fact that this was a trim down coronation. For example there were not a massive group of peers wearing their coronation robes and dining they’re coronets. I have to be honest and say I really did not miss this aspect of the coronation. This is now getting into the territory of modernizing the coronation.

I did spend a lot of time online reading other people’s perspective and opinions on the coronation. I’m not taking into account the anti-monarcus and people who absolutely were against the coronation. I’m speaking of people that support the monarchy and the coronation yet also realize that the moniker needs to be cognizant of the times in which we live and continually needs to be updated to stay relevant.

I have read some opinions that felt that much of the coronation is to archaic for our day and age. I’m not sure I agree with that. I sincerely hope in the future there will be more coronation of British monarchs. However, as I said I do understand the need for the monarchy to stay relevant. I believe this can be a topic all on the song which I will address in a future blog entry.

Another aspect that I liked was the use of the regalia during the ceremony. The spurs , armills and rings were only presented to the King. Traditionally, when a King is crowned, the spurs are supposed to touch his heels. It did not happen. And the King did not wear the armills and the ring.

The Spurs are now very fragile and it was decided that the King would just touch them. The Armills and both rings would have needed to be adjusted to fit the King and Queen. Rather than adjusting them and possibly causing damage they were just presented to Their Majesties.

By being presented to His Majesty where he touched them, I thought that was a nice way to honor the old but also bringing something new.

The coronation ring needs to be modified for each person. On a ring this old fragile that is not always practical so this time it was rightfully chosen not to alter the ring. In reading about the coronation of Queen Victoria she stated that the Archbishop forced the ring on her finger and it was quite painful.

The liked the part of the ceremony where the Prince of Wales was prominent was in paying homage to the king. In the past this part of the coronation would have taken up a lot of time with each peer of the realm coming up to the king and paying their homage and loyalty to him. To me it seems practical to only have the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Prince of Wales pay homage to the king. I did think it was a nice gesture that a pledge of homage and loyalty to the king, which was completely voluntary, was offered for all to participate in. For me that very much personalized this aspect of the coronation.

The next area, the clothes that people wore, seem to be an area of controversy and mixed opinions. I’m not sure how to categorize the way women were dressed back in other coronations, or even how men were dressed if they were not dressed in the robes of the period, the majority of people were dressed in formal day wear. I’d seen some people express that they wished the people were dressed in more formal evening wear with white ties and formal gowns and tiaras would have been better was the opinion of some people.

I’m actually mixed about that. I was absolutely fine with the way people dressed and I didn’t lament the lack of tiaras or other accoutrements generally worn at a coronation. However, I certainly wouldn’t have complained if the dress for the coronation was more traditional

I did like how men of the royal family were dressed. The King asked most of the Royal Ladies to wear the Robe of the Royal Victorian Order. The Princess of Wales, Duchess of Edinburgh and the Duchess of Gloucester also wore the Robe of the Royal Victorian Order. The only odd one out was the Princess Royal who wore the Robe of the Order of the Thistle. I personally think that was so Scotland was represented. As the Duke of York and other royal males wore their Order of the Garter Robe (English Order).

I am not sure what the Princess of Wales and her daughter princess Charlotte of Wales was wearing on their head. To me it looked like some Romanesque laurel wreaths. I like what they were wearing although I read where some did not.

All in all I was very moved and even at times choked up and in tears about this coordination. I think I’ll close right now I rambled on a bit and I’m sure I will write more in the days to come!

God Save the King!

Countdown to the Coronation VIII: Last Coronations

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Anointing Ceremony, Charlemagne, coronation, Emperor-Elect, German Emperor Wilhelm II, Greece, Holy Roman Emperor, King Carlos I of Spain, King Felipe VI of Spain, Kingdom of Prussia, Otto of Greece, Pope, The Crown of Wilhelm II

From the Emperor’s Desk: Coronations in Europe were previously held in the monarchies of Europe. The United Kingdom is the only monarchy in Europe that still practices coronation. Current European monarchies have either replaced coronations with simpler ceremonies to mark an accession (e.g. Norway and Denmark) or have never practiced coronations (e.g. The Netherlands and Belgium). Most monarchies today only require a simple oath to be taken in the presence of the country’s legislature.

However, as the majority of monarchies in Europe transitioned from a form of absolutism to the form of a Democratic or constitutional monarchy they dispensed with or abolished the right of coronation.

Here is a select list of monarchies and when they abolished the coronation rite. This is not an exhaustive list but just hits some certain highlights.

The Holy Roman Empire

Since Charlemagne in 800, Holy Roman Emperors were crowned by the pope. Since 911, the various German princes had elected the King of the Germans from among their peers. The King of the Germans would then be crowned as emperor following the precedent set by Charlemagne, during the period of 962–1530.

Charles V became the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned by the Pope, at Bologna. His successor, Ferdinand I, merely adopted the title of “Emperor elect” in 1558. The final Holy Roman emperor-elect, Franz II, abdicated in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars that saw the Empire’s final dissolution.

Austria

Emperors of Austria were never crowned (unlike their predecessors in the Holy Roman Empire), as a coronation was not viewed as being necessary to legitimize their rule in that country.

However, they were crowned in some kingdoms within the Austrian Empire. Ferdinand I was crowned as King of Hungary with the Crown of Saint Stephen in 1830, as King of Bohemia with the Crown of Saint Wenceslas in 1836, and as King of Lombardy and Venetia with the Iron Crown of Lombardy in 1838.

After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the Emperors of Austria were only crowned as King of Hungary (again with the Crown of Saint Stephen): Franz-Joseph I in 1867 and Charles I (as Charles IV of Hungary) in 1916.

Bavaria

In 1806, the German duchy of Bavaria was upgraded to full “kingdom” status. The former Duke of Bavaria, who now became King of Bavaria, Maximilian I, commissioned a set of crown jewels to commemorate Bavaria’s elevation. However, there was no coronation ceremony, and the king never wore the crown in public. Rather, it was placed on a cushion at his feet when displayed on occasions. The Bavarian monarchy was abolished in 1918.

Spain

The last Spanish monarchs being solemnly crowned were Juan I of Castile (1379), Fernando I of Aragon (1414), and Leonor of Navarre (1479). Joan III of Navarre was crowned as late as 1555, although she ruled Navarre beyond the Pyrenees.

After the 17th century, all Spanish monarchs have taken the royal rank by proclamation and acclamation before the Church, and since the 18th century, before the Cortes Generales, although the royal crown has been present in these ceremonies.

The current king, Felipe VI, was proclaimed King of Spain on 19 June 2014, having the following symbols displayed in front of him:

The commemorative crown (i.e. the corona tumular) bearing the marks of 1775, possibly made for the funeral of Elisabeth Farnese, queen consort of King Felipe V. The crown, made of gold-plated silver and no gems, displays the heraldic symbols of the founding kingdoms of Castile and León, with a turret and lion respectively. It was made by order of King Carlos III in Madrid.

France

The French coronation ritual was similar to that used in England, from 925 and above all 1066, with the coronation of William the Conqueror.

The last French royal coronation was that of Charles X, in 1825 by Jean-Baptiste de Latil in Rheims cathedral. Charles’ decision to be crowned, in contrast to his predecessor, Louis XVIII, who was not crowned, proved unpopular with the French public, and Charles was ultimately overthrown in a revolution in 1830. His successor, Louis Philippe I, opted not to have a coronation. The French government broke up and sold off most of the French Crown Jewels after 1875, in hopes of avoiding any further royalist agitation against the newly restored republic.

Greece

Although Greece retains a set of crown jewels given to it by its first king, Otto I, no King of Greece was ever crowned with them. All monarchs apart from Otto took office by a swearing-in ceremony in front of the Greek Parliament, until the Greek monarchy was abolished in 1974 by a referendum.

Denmark

The coronation of the Danish monarch was a religious ceremony in which the accession of the Danish monarch was marked by a coronation ceremony. It was held in various forms from 1170 to 1840, mostly in Lund Cathedral in Lund, St. Mary’s Cathedral in Copenhagen and in the chapel of Frederiksborg Palace in Hillerød.

In 1660 the coronation ritual was replaced with a ceremony of anointing: the new king would arrive at the coronation site already wearing the crown, and he was then anointed.

This rite was in turn abolished with the introduction of the Danish constitution in 1849. Today the crown of Denmark is only displayed at the monarch’s funeral, when it sits atop their coffin. The present queen, Margrethe II, did not have any formal enthronement service; a public announcement of her accession was made from the balcony of Christiansborg Palace, with the new sovereign being acclaimed by her prime minister at the time (1972), Jens Otto Krag, then cheered with a ninefold “hurrah” by the crowds below.

Norway

The first coronation in Norway, and Scandinavia, took place in Bergen in 1163 or 1164. The Christ Church (Old Cathedral) in Bergen remained the place of coronations in Norway until the capital was moved to Oslo under King Haakon V. From then on some coronations were held in Oslo, but most were held in Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim.

In 1397, Norway, Sweden and Denmark united in what is referred to as the Kalmar Union, sharing the same monarch. During this period the kings were crowned consecutively in each of the three countries until the union was dissolved in 1523. Following this dissolution, Norway entered into a union in 1524 with Denmark which would eventually evolve to an integrated state that was to last until 1814. No coronations were held in Norway during this time. Meanwhile, the monarch underwent a coronation and later, with the introduction of absolutism in 1660, an anointing ceremony in Denmark.

In 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved. Haakon VII was subsequently elected Norway’s monarch. Haakon and his wife Queen Maud (daughter of King Edward VII of the United Kingdom) were the last to be crowned in Nidaros Cathedral in 1906. Following this, the constitutional provision requiring the coronation was repealed in 1908. Thereafter, the monarch has only been required to take his formal accession oath in the Council of State and then in the parliament, the Storting.

King Olav V, desiring a religious ceremony to mark his accession to the throne in 1957, instituted a ceremony of royal consecration, known as Signing til kongsgjerning. This “blessing” rite took place again in 1991, when King Harald V and Queen Sonja were similarly consecrated. Both consecrations were held where the coronation rite had formerly taken place: Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim.

Prussia and the German Empire

Only two kings of Prussia actually had a coronation.

King Wilhelm I was crowned in 1861 as King in Prussia, prior to the establishment of the German Empire (1871). He was crowned with great pomp, becoming the first king to be crowned in Prussia since the coronation of King Friedrich I in 1701. A significant number of politicians opposed the idea. Wilhelm I took the crown with his own hands from the altar and crowned himself, while saying that he was receiving the crown from God’s hands. These words were intended as a warning to Prussian Constitutionalists and Liberals.

Both coronations took place at the church at Königsberg Castle having been the last capital of the Ordenstaat, and capital of the Duchy of Prussia.

The King of Prussia was also Emperor of Imperial Germany from 1871 to 1918. Although a design and model for a German State Crown were made, no final diadem was ever produced, and none of the three German emperors were ever formally crowned.

The Crown of Wilhelm II, also known as the Hohenzollern Crown, is the 1888 crown made for Wilhelm II, German Emperor, in his role as King of Prussia. It was only used for heraldic purposes.

Countdown to the Coronation VI: Scottish Coronations

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Battle of Flodden, John Balliol, King Alexander II of Scotland, King Charles I of England and Scotland, King Charles II of England and Scotland, King Edward I of England, King James VI of Scotland, Pope John XII, Scone Abbey, Scottish Coronations, Stone of Destiny, Westminster Abbey

Scottish coronations were traditionally held at Scone Abbey in Perthshire, with the monarch seated on the Stone of Destiny. The original rituals were a fusion of ceremonies used by the kings of Dál Riata, based on the inauguration of Aidan by Columba in 574, and by the Picts from whom the Stone of Destiny came.

A crown does not seem to have been used until the inauguration of King Alexander II in 1214. The ceremony included the laying on of hands by a senior cleric and the recitation of the king’s genealogy. After the coronation of John Balliol, the Stone was taken to Westminster Abbey in 1296 and in 1300–1301 Edward I of England had it incorporated into the English Coronation Chair.

Its first certain use at an English coronation was that of Henry IV in 1399. Pope John XXII in a bull of 1329 granted the kings of Scotland the right to be anointed and crowned. No record exists of the exact form of the medieval rituals, but a later account exists of the coronation of the 17-month-old infant James V at Stirling Castle in 1513. The ceremony was held in a church, since demolished, within the castle walls and was conducted by the Bishop of Glasgow, because the Archbishop of St Andrews had been killed at the Battle of Flodden.

It is likely that the child would have been knighted before the start of the ceremony. The coronation itself started with a sermon, followed by the anointing and crowning, then the coronation oath, in this case taken for the child by an unknown noble or priest, and finally an oath of fealty and acclamation by the congregation.

King James VI had been crowned King of Scots in the Church of the Holy Rude at Stirling in 1567. After the Union of the Crowns, he was crowned at Westminster Abbey as King of England and Ireland on July 25, 1603. His son Charles I travelled north for a Scottish coronation at Holyrood Abbey in Edinburgh in 1633, but caused consternation amongst the Presbyterian Scots by his insistence on elaborate High Anglican ritual, arousing “gryt feir of inbriginge of poperie”.

King Charles II underwent a simple Presbyterian coronation ceremony at Scone in 1651, but his brother King James VII-II was never crowned in Scotland, although Scottish peers attended his coronation in London, setting a precedent for future ceremonies.

Countdown to the Coronation III: The Imperial State Crown

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Black Prince Ruby, coronation, King Charles III of the United Kingdom, King George VI of the United Kingdom, King William III of England, Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, Sir Robert Vyner, the Imperial State Crown

From the Emperor’s Desk: Although St. Edward’s Crown is the focal point of the coronation, the Imperial State Crown also plays a role in this ancient ceremony.

A State Crown has existed in various forms since the 15th century. The current version was made in 1937 and is worn by the monarch after a coronation (St Edward’s Crown having been used to crown the monarch) and used at the State Openings of Parliament.

The crown is adorned with 2,901 precious stones, including the Cullinan II diamond, St Edward’s Sapphire, the Stuart Sapphire, and the Black Prince’s Ruby.

St Edward’s Crown, used to crown English monarchs, was considered to be a holy relic, kept in the saint’s shrine at Westminster Abbey and therefore not worn by monarchs at any other time. Instead, a “great crown” with crosses and fleurs-de-lis, but without arches (an open crown), was a king’s usual headgear at state occasions until the time of Henry V, who is depicted wearing an imperial crown of state with gold arches (a closed crown).

Arches were a symbol of sovereignty, and by this point in history, the king of England was being celebrated as rex in regno suo est imperator – an emperor of his own domain – owing obedience to no one but God, unlike some continental rulers, who owed fealty to more powerful kings or the Holy Roman Emperor.

Henry VII or his son and successor Henry VIII may have commissioned a more elaborate version of the state crown which is first described in detail in an inventory of royal jewels in 1521, and again in 1532, 1550, 1574 and 1597, and was included in a painting by Daniel Mytens of Charles I in 1631.

The Tudor Crown had more pearls and jewels than its medieval predecessor, and the centre petals of each of the fleurs-de-lis had images of Christ, the Virgin Mary and St George. The crown weighed 3.3 kg (7 lb 6 oz) and was set with 168 pearls, 58 rubies, 28 diamonds, 19 sapphires and 2 emeralds. Following the abolition of the monarchy and the execution of Charles I in 1649, the Tudor Crown was broken up by Oliver Cromwell during the Interregnum, and its valuable components were sold for £1,100.

Restoration to present day

Upon the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, a new state crown was made for Charles II by Sir Robert Vyner. About 10 versions of the crown have existed since the restoration. The one made for Queen Victoria in 1838 is the basis for today’s crown. Made by Rundell and Bridge in 1838 using old and new jewels, it had a crimson velvet cap with ermine border and a lining of white silk. It weighed 39.25 troy ounces (43.06 oz; 1,221 g) and was decorated with 1,363 brilliant-cut, 1,273 rose-cut and 147 table-cut diamonds, 277 pearls, 17 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 4 rubies, and the Black Prince’s Ruby (a spinel).

At the State Opening of Parliament in 1845, the Duke of Argyll was carrying the crown before Queen Victoria when it fell off the cushion and broke. Victoria wrote in her diary, “it was all crushed and squashed like a pudding that had sat down”.

The gems in the crown were remounted for the coronation of George VI in 1937 by Garrard & Co. The crown was adjusted for Queen Elizabeth II’s coronation in 1953, with the head size reduced and the arches lowered by 25 mm (1 inch) to give it a more feminine appearance.
Description

Notable stones are St Edward’s Sapphire on the top cross, reputedly taken from the ring of Edward the Confessor when he was re-interred at Westminster Abbey in 1163, and the Black Prince’s Ruby (a large spinel) on the front cross. In 1909, the 104-carat (21 g) Stuart Sapphire, set in the front of the crown, was moved to the back and replaced by the 317-carat (63 g) Cullinan II. Below the monde hang four pearls, three of which are often said to have belonged to Queen Elizabeth I, but the association is almost certainly erroneous.
Usage

The crown is worn by the monarch on leaving Westminster Abbey at the end of his or her coronation. It is usually also worn at State Openings of Parliament, although Elizabeth II wore a hat in March 1974, June 2017 and December 2019 after snap general elections, and in October 2019 she wore the State Diadem, while the Imperial State Crown was carried beside her.

Usually, it is taken to the Palace of Westminster under armed guard in its own carriage and placed in the Robing Room, where the monarch dons the robes and puts on the crown before giving the monarchs speech to Parliament. If a State Opening occurs before a coronation, the crown is placed on a cushion beside the monarch.

In 1689, one week after being proclaimed king, William III wore his crown in Parliament to pass the Crown and Parliament Recognition Act 1689.

However, what is interesting is that wearing the Imperial State Crown for the State Opening of Parliament is a recent Twentieth Century development that began only as recently as George V (1910-1936). After the World War I which saw the toppling of many European thrones and with a country that was war weary, his advisers decided to brighten up the ceremony surrounding the event to increase visibility and respect for the monarchy, and one way this was achieved was by wearing the Imperial State Crown during the reading of the Monarch’s Speech.

Queen Victoria and Edward VII and monarchs before them did not wear a crown during the State Opening of Parliament. This makes the opening of the movie, “The Madness of King George III” (known simply as “The Madness of King George” in the United States) which depicts the king wearing a crown at the opening of Parliament very inaccurate. In her seclusion Queen Victoria rarely opened Parliament herself, but on those rare occasions she did open Parliament, Victoria wore her small diamond crown whilst Edward wore a plumed hat.

When not in use, the Imperial State Crown is on public display in the Jewel House at the Tower of London.

The Imperial State Crown was also removed from the Tower of London to be altered for King Charles III. The Arches were lowered for Queen Elizabeth II to give the crown a more feminine look. I am very interested to see what modifications were made for King Charles III.

Countdown to the Coronation II: St Edward’s Crown

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Commonwealth, coronation, Crowns and Regalia, English Civil War, King Charles II of England, King Charles III of the United Kingdom, Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, Restoration, Sir Robert Vyner, St. Edward's Crown, the Imperial State Crown

St Edward’s Crown is the centrepiece of the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom. Named after Saint Edward the Confessor, King of the English from 1042 until his death in 1066. This crown had been traditionally used to crown English and British monarchs at their coronations since the 13th century.

In December of last year, Buckingham Palace announced that St Edward’s Crown was removed from the Tower of London to allow for modification work to begin ahead of the Coronation on Saturday 6th May 2023.

I was wondering if King Charles III would use the St. Edward’s Crown. I had been thinking it was too large. I had forgotten that it could be modified just like the Imperial State Crown!

The original crown was a holy relic kept at Westminster Abbey, Edward’s burial place, until the regalia was either sold or melted down when Parliament abolished the monarchy in 1649, during the English Civil War (1642-1649).

The monarchy was restored in 1660 after the Commonwealth period and in preparation for the coronation of Charles II, who had been living in exile abroad, a new St Edward’s Crown was supplied by the Royal Goldsmith, Sir Robert Vyner. It was fashioned to closely resemble the medieval crown, with a heavy gold base and clusters of semi-precious stones, but the arches are decidedly Baroque.

In the late 20th century, the new St. Edward’s Crown was assumed to incorporate gold from the original St Edward’s Crown, as they are almost identical in weight, and no invoice was produced for the materials in 1661.

A crown was also displayed at the lying in state of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England from 1653 until 1658. However, it is believed the crown at Cromwell’s lying in state was probably made of gilded base metal such as tin or copper, as was usual in 17th-century England; for example, a crown displayed at the funeral of James VI-I had cost only £5 and was decorated with fake jewels.

On the weight of this evidence, writer and historian Martin Holmes, in a 1959 paper for Archaeologia, concluded that in the time of the Interregnum St Edward’s Crown was saved from the melting pot and that its gold was used to make a new crown at the Restoration.

His theory became accepted wisdom, and many books, including official guidebooks for the Crown Jewels at the Tower of London, repeated his claim as fact. In 2008, new research found that a coronation crown and sceptre were made in 1660 in anticipation of an early coronation, which had to be delayed several times.

A stylised image of this crown is used on coats of arms, badges, logos and various other insignia in the Commonwealth realms to symbolise the royal authority of Queen Elizabeth II.

When not in use, St Edward’s Crown is on public display in the Jewel House at the Tower of London.

Usage

Although it is regarded as the official coronation crown, after 1689, it was not used to crown a monarch for over 200 years. In 1911, the tradition was revived by George V, and all subsequent monarchs (except Edward VIII who was not crowned at all) have been crowned using St Edward’s Crown.

Only six monarchs have been crowned with St Edward’s Crown since the Restoration: Charles II (1661), James II (1685), William III (1689), George V (1911), George VI (1937) and Elizabeth II (1953). King Charles III (2023) will be the seventh monarch crowned with St. Edward’s Crown since 1661.

Mary II and Anne were crowned with small diamond crowns of their own; George I, George II, George III and William IV were crowned with the State Crown of George I. King George IV was crowned with a new large diamond crown made specially for the occasion; and Queen Victoria and Edward VII chose not to use St. Edward’s Crown because of its weight and instead used the lighter 1838 version of the Imperial State Crown.

When not used to crown the monarch, St Edward’s Crown was placed on the altar during the coronation; however, it did not feature at all in the coronation of Queen Victoria.

Countdown to the Coronation

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coronation, King Charles III of the United Kingdom, May 6, Operation Golden Orb, Queen Camilla, Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, Westminster Abbey

From The Emperor’s Desk: One week from today, May 6, 2023, is the coronation of Their Majesties King Charles III of the United Kingdom and his Queen Camilla.

From today until next Saturday I will be posting on some historic aspects of past coronations and the current coronation.

The coronation of Charles III and his wife, Camilla, as King and Queen of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms is scheduled to take place on Saturday, May 6, 2023, at Westminster Abbey. Charles acceded to the throne on September 8, 2022, upon the death of his mother, Queen Elizabeth II, during her Platinum Jubilee Year celebrating a record 70 years on the throne.

Compared with previous coronations, the ceremony will undergo some alterations to represent multiple faiths, cultures, and communities across the United Kingdom, and will be shorter than his mother’s coronation in 1953.

The ceremony will begin with the anointing of Charles, symbolising his spiritual entry into kingship, and then his crowning and enthronement, representing his assumption of temporal powers and responsibilities. Camilla will be crowned in a shorter and simpler ceremony. The royal family will travel to Buckingham Palace afterward, in a state procession, and appear on the balcony to celebrate the occasion.

In addition to the coronation ceremony, the event will be marked by public ceremonies and celebrations in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the British Crown Dependencies and overseas territories. On 7 May, the Coronation Big Lunch will take place in the United Kingdom, providing the public with the opportunity to mark the occasion with street parties.

The Coronation Concert will be held on the same day at Windsor Castle with representatives of the King and Queen’s charities as well as members of the general public in attendance. The Big Help Out initiative will take place on 8 May, to encourage community service and volunteering. Both the coronation at Westminster Abbey and the concert at Windsor Castle will be broadcast on television and streamed online.

This will be the first coronation of a British monarch in the 21st century and the 40th to be held at Westminster Abbey since 1066.

Preparation

Charles III became king immediately upon the death of his mother, Elizabeth II, at 15:10 BST on Thursday September 8, 2022. He was proclaimed king by the Accession Council of the United Kingdom on Saturday 10 September, which was followed by proclamations in other Commonwealth realms.

Due to Elizabeth’s advanced age, Charles’s coronation has been planned for years, under the code name Operation Golden Orb. During Elizabeth’s reign, planning meetings for Operation Golden Orb were held at least once a year, attended by representatives of the government, the Church of England and Clarence House staff.

Planning

The Duke of Norfolk, Edward Fitzalan-Howard, is in charge of organising the coronation as hereditary Earl Marshal. A committee of privy counsellors will arrange the event.

In October 2022, the date of Charles and Camilla’s coronation was announced: Saturday May 6, 2023 at Westminster Abbey. Buckingham Palace set the date to ensure sufficient time to mourn the death of Queen Elizabeth II before holding a joyous ceremony. In November 2022, the government proclaimed that an extra bank holiday would occur on 8 May, two days after the coronation. On January 20, 2023, Buckingham Palace announced plans for the coronation weekend between May 6 and 8.

March 19, 1452: Papal Coronation of Emperor Friedrich III

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Cardinal Francesco Condulmer, Duke of Austria, German Emperor Friedrich III, Holy Roman Emperor Friedrich III, House of Habsburg, Iron Crown of Lombardy, King Duarte of Portugal, King of Prussia Infanta Eleanor of Portugal, Papal Coronation, Pope Nicholas V

Friedrich III (September 21, 1415 – August 19, 1493) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1452 until his death. He was the fourth king and first emperor of the House of Habsburg. The previous Habsburg rulers of the empire were Kings of the Romans while Friedrich III was the first Habsburg to be crowned Emperor. He was the penultimate emperor to be crowned by the pope, and the last to be crowned in Rome.

Early life

Born at the Tyrolean residence of Innsbruck in 1415, Friedrich was the eldest son of the Inner Austrian duke Ernest the Iron, a member of the Leopoldian line of the Habsburg dynasty, and his second wife Cymburgis of Masovia. According to the 1379 Treaty of Neuberg, the Leopoldinian branch ruled over the duchies of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, or what was referred to as Inner Austria.

Emperor Friedrich III

Only three of Friedrich’s eight siblings survived childhood: his younger brother Albrecht (later to be Albrecht VI, Archduke of Austria), and his sisters Margaret (later the electress of Saxony) and Catherine. In 1424, nine-year-old Friedrich’s father died, making Friedrich the Duke of Inner Austria, as Friedrich V, with his uncle, Duke Friedrich IV of Tyrol, acting as regent.

From 1431, Friedrich tried to obtain majority (to be declared “of age”, and thus allowed to rule) but for several years was denied by his relatives. Finally, in 1435, Albrecht V, Duke of Austria (later Albrecht II, the King of the Romans), awarded him the rule over his Inner Austrian heritage.

Almost from the beginning, Friedrich’s younger brother Albrecht asserted his rights as a co-ruler, as the beginning of a long rivalry. Already in these years, Friedrich had begun to use the symbolic A.E.I.O.U. signature as a kind of motto with various meanings. In 1436 he made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, accompanied by numerous nobles knighted by the Order of the Holy Sepulchre, which earned him great reputation.

Upon the death of his uncle Duke Friedrich IV in 1439, Friedrich took over the regency of Tyrol and Further Austria for the duke’s heir Sigismund. Again he had to ward off the claims raised by his brother Albrecht VI; he prevailed by the support of the Tyrolean aristocracy.

Likewise he acted as regent for his nephew Ladislaus the Posthumous, son of late King Albrecht II and his consort Elizabeth of Luxembourg, in the duchy of Austria (Further Austria). (Ladislaus would die before coming of age). Friedrich was now the undisputed head of the Habsburg dynasty, though his regency in the lands of the Albertinian Line (Further Austria) was still viewed with suspicion.

Previous Habsburg ruler of the Empire, Albrecht II, King of the Romans

Prior to his imperial coronation, he was Duke of the Inner Austrian lands of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola from 1424, and also acted as regent over the Duchy of Austria from 1439.

As a cousin of late King Albert II, Friedrich became a candidate for the 1440 imperial election. On February 2, 1440, the Prince-Electors convened at Frankfurt and unanimously elected him King of the Romans as Friedrich III; his rule was still based on his hereditary lands of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, or Inner Austria.

In 1442, Friedrich allied himself with Rudolf Stüssi, burgomaster of Zurich, against the Old Swiss Confederacy in the Old Zurich War (Alter Zürichkrieg) but lost. In 1448, he entered into the Concordat of Vienna with the Holy See, which remained in force until 1806 and regulated the relationship between the Habsburgs and the Holy See.

Marriage and Imperial Coronation

Infanta Eleanor of Portugal

In 1452, at the age of 37, Friedrich III travelled to Italy to receive his bride and to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor. His fiancée was the 18-year-old infanta Eleanor of Portugal, daughter of King Duarte of Portugal and his wife Eleanor of Aragon, daughter of King Fernando I of Aragon and Eleanor of Alburquerque.

Infanta Eleanor of Portugal landed at Livorno (Leghorn) after a 104-day trip. Her dowry would help Friedrich alleviate his debts and cement his power. The couple met at Siena on February 24, and proceeded together to Rome. As per tradition, they spent a night outside the walls of Rome before entering the city on March 9, where Friedrich and Pope Nicholas V exchanged friendly greetings.

Because Friedrich had been unable to retrieve the Iron Crown of Lombardy from the cathedral of Monza where it was kept, nor be crowned King of Italy by the archbishop of Milan (on account of Friedrich’s dispute with Francesco Sforza, lord of Milan), he convinced the pope to crown him as such with the German Crown, which had been brought for the purpose.

This coronation took place on the morning of March 16, in spite of the protests of the Milanese ambassadors, and in the afternoon Friedrich and Eleanor were married by Pope Nicholas V.

Picture of Crowns: Imperial Crown of Friedrich III, second row, third from left.

Finally, on March 19, Friedrich and Eleanor were anointed in St Peter’s Basilica by the Vice-Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church, Cardinal Francesco Condulmer, and Friedrich was then crowned with the Imperial Crown by the Pope . Friedrich III was the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned in Rome. His great-grandson Emperor Charles V was the last emperor to be crowned, but this was done in Bologna.

During his reign, Emperor Friedrich III concentrated on re-uniting the Habsburg “hereditary lands” of Austria and took a lesser interest in Imperial affairs. Nevertheless, by his dynastic entitlement to Hungary as well as by the Burgundian inheritance, he laid the foundations for the later Habsburg Empire. Despite being mocked as “Arch-Sleepyhead of the Holy Roman Empire” during his lifetime, he is today increasingly seen as an effective ruler.

Imperial Crown of Friedrich III

Historian Thomas A. Brady Jr. credited Friedrich III with leaving a credible claim on the imperial title and a secure grip on the Austrian lands, now organized as a single state, for his son. This imperial revival (as well as the rise of the territorial state) began under the reign of Frederick.

His reign of 53 years is the longest in the history of the Holy Roman Empire or the German monarchy. Upon his death in 1493 he was succeeded by his son Maximilian.

A little trivia about the name Friedrich.

German Emperor Friedrich III, King of Prussia

When German Emperor Wilhelm I died in March of 1888 there was some confusion on what the regnal name of his successor should be.

Logically, the new Emperor Friedrich should have taken as his regnal name either Friedrich I (if the Bismarckian Empire was considered a new entity) or Friedrich IV (if the German Empire was considered a continuation of the old Holy Roman Empire, which had had three emperors named Friedrich); technically this was a new Empire, though Friedrich himself preferred the latter.

However, on the advice of Bismarck that this would create legal problems, he opted to simply keep the same regnal name he had as King of Prussia. There had been two previous Kings of Prussia named Friedrich (Friedrich II the Great being the most recent) so the new German Emperor became Friedrich III.

History of the Kingdom of East Francia: King of the Romans

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Emperor Henry II, Emperor Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor, King of East Francia, King of Germany, King of the Romans, Pope Benedict VIII, Rex Francorum, Rex Romanorum, Rex Teutonicum, Romanorum Imperator

Before I address the title “King of the Romans”, I will do a brief and simple summary of the information thus far.

In 800CE Charlemagne, King of the Franks, was crowned “Emperor of the Romans” by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day. This Empire, which was to be a restart of the old Roman Empire, is known as the Carolingian Empire. When Emperor Charlemagne died in 814 he left this Empire fully intact to his son Louis the Pious.

However, upon Louis’s death in 840CE he divided the empire amongst his three surviving sons. After a brief Civil War and the signing of the Treaty of Verdun in 843, the third son of Louis the Pious, known as Louis the German’ inherited the eastern portion of the Empire, logically known as the Kingdom of East Francia.

After the Carolingian Dynasty died out the Kingdom of East Francia, an elective monarchy, became the possession of the Dukes of Saxony. When King Otto I of East Francia who was also crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope John XII 962 we see a transition from a Frankish Kingdom into a Germanic Kingdom and from there the title of the Kingdom transition to King of the Germans or also called Kingdom of Germany.

Carolingian Empire (Kingdom of East Francia) on the right

The transition from a Kingdom of the Franks to a Kingdom of the Germans was not immediate and it took time. Any firm distinction between the kingdoms of Eastern Francia and the Kingdom of Germany is to some extent the product of later retrospection and historiography.

It is impossible to base this distinction on primary sources, as the name Eastern Francia for the kingdom remained in use long after the name Kingdom of Germany came into use.

The actual title of the monarch did vary over time. During the Ottonian period, it was King of the Franks (Rex Francorum), from the late Salian period it was King of the Romans (Rex Romanorum).

The last of the Ottonian Kings of East Francia to use a different title began with the reign of Emperor Heinrich II (1002–1024) onward. Before assuming the throne Heinrich II was known as Heinrich III, Duke of Bavaria.

In 1001, Emperor Otto III experienced a revolt against his reign in Italy. The Emperor sent word for Heinrich III, Duke of Bavaria to join him with reinforcements from Germany, but then died unexpectedly in January 1002. Otto was only 21 at the time of his death and had left no children and no instructions for the Imperial succession. In the Ottonian dynasty, succession to the throne had belonged to the Saxon branch, not the Bavarian line of which Heinrch III was a member.

As the funeral procession of Emperor Otto III moved through the Duchy of Bavaria in February 1002, Heinrich met the procession to legitimize his claims, and Heinrich demanded Archbishop Heribert of Cologne give him the Imperial Regalia. The Archbishop refused. Heinrich imprisoned the Archbishop and his brother the Bishop of Würzburg.

With neither the symbols of imperial authority, the crown jewels, nor the cooperation of Heribert, Heinrich was unable to convince the nobles attending Otto III’s funeral procession to elect him as king. A few weeks later, at Otto III’s funeral in Aachen Cathedral, Henry again attempted to gain the support of the kingdom’s nobles and was again rejected.

Heinrich II, Holy Roman Emperor

So it was without the support of the kingdom’s nobility that Heinrich took the radical action of having himself anointed and crowned “King of Germany” or to be more accurate “Rex Romanorum” (King of the Romans) by Willigis, Archbishop of Mainz on July 9, 1002 at Mainz.

Heinrich’s action marked the first time a German king was not crowned in Aachen Cathedral since Emperor Otto I began the tradition in 936 and the first time a German king assumed the throne without election by the German nobility. Under the regal name of “King Heinrich II”, he appeared before the Saxons in mid-July in full regal apparel. There, Henry convinced Bernard I, Duke of Saxony, to support his claims to the throne.

Notice Heinrich II, as King, took the title “Rex Romanorum” (King of the Romans) rather than “Rex Teutonicum” (King of Germany). This begins the tradition of taking the title King of the Romans until he could secure his Papal coronation as Emperor.

Kingdom of Germany

Therefore, the title King of the Romans was from that point forward used by the King of Germany following his election by the princes from within the Empire, until he was crowned Emperor by the Pope.

King Heinrich II would have to wait 12 years for that to occur.

There was a great upheaval within the Roman Catholic Church as rival Popes fought for supremacy. I will not go into detail about this at this point.

Fleeing across the Alps to Germany, Pope Benedict VIII appealed to King Heinrich II for protection. Heinrich II agreed to restore Benedict VIII to his papal throne in return for his coronation as Emperor.

Heinrich II arrived in Rome in early 1014, restoring Benedict VIII as pope. On February 14, 1014, Pope Benedict VIII crowned King Heinrich II as Holy Roman Emperor (“Romanorum Imperator”) in St. Peter’s Basilica.

More on the title King of the Romans in my next entry.

Queen Camilla will wear Queen Mary’s Crown for her Coronation

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Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Queen Camilla, Queen Consort, Queen Mary, Queen Mary's Crown, Queen Victoria, The Great Exhibition, The Koh-i-Noor Diamond

Today Buckingham Palace announced that Queen Camilla will wear the gold and silver crown once worn by Queen Mary at her Coronation in 1911 with King George V.

Generally a new Queen Consort will have a new crown made for her for her coronation. However, Her Majesty the Queen has opted to use Queen Mary’s crown instead and have it modified to reflect “the Consort’s individual style.”

By selecting Queen Mary’s crown it will be the first time
since the 18th century that a Queen Consort’s crown has been re-used. The last time this occurred was when Queen Caroline (born a Princess of Brandenburg-Ansbach) and consort of King George II of Great Britain wore the crown made for Mary of Modena, who was the consort of King James II-VII of England, Scotland and Ireland.

Crown of Mary of Modena

Queen Mary’s crown has eight arches around the crown and part of it’s modification four of the arches will be removed. The crown will also be reset with the famous Cullinan III, IV, and V diamonds that the Queen Elizabeth II often wore as brooches.

One rather large piece of jewelry that will be absent from the crown is the highly controversial Koh-i-Noor diamond. This large 105.6 carat diamond has multiple conflicting legends on the origin of the diamond.

Her Majesty, Queen Camilla

However, in the words of the colonial administrator Theo Metcalfe, there is “very meagre and imperfect” evidence of the early history of the Koh-i-Noor before the 1740s, that can directly tie it to any ancient diamond.

There is no record of its original weight, but the earliest attested weight is 186 old carats (191 metric carats or 38.2 g). The first verifiable record of the diamond comes from a history by Muhammad Kazim Marvi of the 1740s Invasion of Northern India. Marvi notes that the Koh-i-Noor as being one of many stones on the Mughal Peacock Throne that Nader Shah looted from Delhi.

Queen Victoria wearing the Koh-i-Noor diamond as a brooch

The diamond then changed hands between various empires in south and west Asia, until being given to Queen Victoria after the British East India Company’s annexation of the Punjab region in 1849, during the reign of the then 11-year-old Maharaja of the Sikh Empire Duleep Singh, who had previously possessed the stone.

Originally, the stone was of a similar cut to other Mughal-era diamonds, like the Daria-i-Noor, which are now in the Iranian Crown Jewels.

Crown of Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother

In 1851 the Koh-i-Noor went on display at the Great Exhibition in London, but the lackluster cut failed to impress viewers. Queen Victoria’s husband, Prince Albert, ordered it to be re-cut as an oval brilliant by Coster Diamonds.

Under the supervision of Prince Albert and the Duke of Wellington, and the technical direction of the queen’s mineralogist, James Tennant, the cutting took thirty-eight days.

Queen Elizabeth and King George VI

Prince Albert spent a total of £8,000 on the operation, which reduced the weight of the diamond from 186 old carats (191 modern carats or 38.2 g) to its current 105.6 carats (21.12 g). The stone measures 3.6 cm (1.4 in) long, 3.2 cm (1.3 in) wide, and 1.3 cm (0.5 in) deep. Brilliant-cut diamonds usually have fifty-eight facets, but the Koh-i-Noor has eight additional “star” facets around the culet, making a total of sixty-six facets.

Since arriving in the UK, it has only been worn by female members of the Royal Family. Queen Victoria wore the stone in a brooch and a circlet. After she died in 1901, it was set in the Crown of Queen Alexandra, born a Princess of Denmark and the wife of King Edward VII of the United Kingdom.

The Koh-i-Noor was transferred to the Crown of Queen Mary in 1911, and finally to the Crown of Queen Elizabeth, The Queen Mother in 1937 for her coronation.

The Koh-i-Noor has long been a subject of diplomatic controversy, with India, Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan all demanding its return from the UK at various points.

Possible compromises

Queen Mary and King George V

Because of the quadripartite dispute over the diamond’s rightful ownership, there have been various compromises suggested to bring the dispute to an end. These include dividing the diamond into four, with a piece given to each of Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan, with the final piece retained by the British Crown.

Queen Alexandra

Another suggestion is that the jewel be housed in a special museum at the Wagah border between India and Pakistan. However this suggestion does not cater to Afghan claims, nor the reality of current British possession. The British Government rejects these compromises, and has stated since the end of the British Raj that the status of the diamond is ‘non-negotiable’.

A spokesman for Indian Prime Minister Narenda Modi recently said the jewel “brings back painful memories of the colonial past.”

December 18, 1626: Birth of Christina, Queen of Sweden. Part III.

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Abdication, Axel Oxenstierna, Carl Gustaf of Zweibrücken-Kleeburg, King Carl X Gustaf of Sweden, King Felipe IV of Spain, King Gustaf II Adolph of Sweden, Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg, Queen Christina of Sweden

Coronation

Queen Christina’s delayed coronation finally took place on October 22, 1650. Christina went to the castle of Jacobsdal where she entered in a coronation carriage draped in black velvet embroidered in gold and pulled by three white horses. The procession to Storkyrkan was so long that when the first carriages arrived, the last ones had not yet left Jacobsdal (a distance of roughly 10.5 km or 6.5 miles).

All four estates were invited to dine at the castle. Fountains at the marketplace splashed out wine for three days, a whole roast ox was served, and illuminations sparkled, followed by a themed parade (The Illustrious Splendors of Felicity) on October 24.

The Crown used by Queen Christina for her coronation was originally made for her mother Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg as the queen consort of Gustaf II Adolph. It was made in Stockholm in 1620 by German goldsmith Rupprecht Miller and originally had two arches in a very fine foliage design in gold with black enameling and set with rubies and diamonds (a reference to the colors of the arms of her father Johann Sigmund of Brandenburg), with a small blue enameled monde and a cross, both set with diamonds.

Queen Christina had two more arches added to her mother’s crown matching the first two and had more diamonds and rubies added to it to enhance the crown’s appearance as the crown of a Queen Regnant. She also added a cap of purple satin, embroidered in gold and set with more diamonds, to the inside of the crown.

The circlet of the crown has eight large cabochon rubies set beneath each of the eight arches of the crown and diamonds in large rosette patterns in the intervening spaces of the circlet. Queen Christina’s crown was the crown chosen to be displayed with other items of the Swedish regalia and artifacts from the Swedish royal collections in a 1988-1989 exhibition at the National Gallery of Art in Washington D.C. and the Minneapolis Institute of Art commemorating the founding of Delaware as a Swedish colony in 1638.

Religion and health

Her tutor, Johannes Matthiae, influenced by John Dury and Comenius, who since 1638 had been working on a new Swedish school system, represented a gentler attitude than most Lutherans. In 1644, he suggested a new church order, but it was voted down as this was interpreted as Crypto-Calvinism.

Queen Christina defended him against the advice of Chancellor Oxenstierna, but three years later, the proposal had to be withdrawn. In 1647, the clergy wanted to introduce the Book of Concord – a book defining correct Lutheranism versus heresy, making some aspects of free theological thinking impossible. Matthiae was strongly opposed to this and was again backed by Christina. The Book of Concord was not introduced.

In 1651, after reigning almost twenty years, working at least ten hours a day, Christina had what some have interpreted as a nervous breakdown. For an hour she seemed to be dead. She suffered from high blood pressure, complained about bad eyesight and a crooked back.

She had seen already many court physicians. In February 1652, the French doctor Pierre Bourdelot arrived in Stockholm. Unlike most doctors of that time, he held no faith in blood-letting; instead, he ordered sufficient sleep, warm baths, and healthy meals, as opposed to Christina’s hitherto ascetic way of life.

She was only twenty-five and advising that she should take more pleasure in life, Bourdelot asked her to stop studying and working so hard and to remove the books from her apartments. For years, Christina knew by heart all the sonnets from the Ars Amatoria and was keen on the works by Martial and Petronius.

The physician showed her the 16 erotic sonnets of Pietro Aretino, which he kept secretly in his luggage. By subtle means Bourdelot undermined her principles. Having been stoic, she now became an Epicurean. Her mother and de la Gardie were very much against the activities of Bourdelot and tried to convince her to change her attitude towards him; Bourdelot returned to France in 1653 “laden in riches and curses”.

The Queen had long conversations about Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Francis Bacon, and Kepler with Antonio Macedo, secretary, and interpreter for Portugal’s ambassador. Macedo was a Jesuit, and in August 1651, smuggled on his person a letter from Christina to his general in Rome.

In reply, Paolo Casati and Francesco Malines came to Sweden in the spring of 1652, trained in both natural sciences and theology. She had more conversations with them, being interested in Catholic views on sin, the immortality of the soul, rationality, and free will.

The two scholars revealed her plans to Cardinal Fabio Chigi. Around May 1652 Christina, raised in the Lutheran Church of Sweden, decided to become Catholic. She sent Matthias Palbitzki to Madrid and King Felipe IV of Spain sent the diplomat Antonio Pimentel de Prado to Stockholm in August.

Abdication

On February 26, 1649, was when Christina announced that she had decided not to marry and instead wanted her first cousin Carl Gustaf of Zweibrücken-Kleeburg to be heir to the throne. While the nobility objected to this, the three other estates – clergy, burghers, and peasants – accepted it. She agreed to stay on the throne on the condition the councils never again asked her to marry.

In 1651, Christina lost much of her popularity after the beheading of Arnold Johan Messenius, together with his 17-year-old son, who had accused her of serious misbehavior and of being a “Jezebel”. According to them “Christina was bringing everything to ruin, and that she cared for nothing but sport and pleasure.”

In 1653, she founded the Amaranten order. Antonio Pimentel was appointed as its first knight; all members had to promise not to marry (again). In the same year, she ordered Vossius (and Heinsius) to make a list of about 6,000 books and manuscripts to be packed and shipped to Antwerp.

In February 1654, she plainly told the Council of her plans to abdicate. Axel Oxenstierna told her she would regret her decision within a few months. In May, the Riksdag discussed her proposals. She had asked for 200,000 rikstalers a year, but received dominions instead.

Financially she was secured through a pension and revenue from the town of Norrköping, the isles of Gotland, Öland, Ösel, and Poel, Wolgast and Neukloster in Mecklenburg, and estates in Pomerania.

Her plan to convert to Catholicism was not the only reason for her abdication, as there was increasing discontent with her arbitrary and wasteful ways. Within ten years, she and Oxenstierna had created 17 counts, 46 barons, and 428 lesser nobles. To provide these new peers with adequate appanages, they had sold or mortgaged crown property representing an annual income of 1,200,000 rikstalers.

During the ten years of her reign, the number of noble families increased from 300 to about 600, rewarding people such as Lennart Torstenson, Louis De Geer and Johan Palmstruch for their efforts. These donations took place with such haste that they were not always registered, and on some occasions, the same piece of land was given away twice.

Queen Christina abdicated her throne on June 6, 1654 in favor of Carl Gustaf. During the abdication ceremony at Uppsala Castle, Christina wore her regalia, which were ceremonially removed from her, one by one. Per Brahe, who was supposed to remove the crown, did not move, so she had to take the crown off herself.

Dressed in a simple white taffeta dress, she gave her farewell speech with a faltering voice, thanked everyone, and left the throne to King Carl X Gustaf, who was dressed in black. Per Brahe felt that she “stood there as pretty as an angel.” King Carl X Gustaf was crowned later on that day. Christina left the country within a few days.