The Holy Roman Empire

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Charlemagne, Charles V Holy Roman Empire, Essay on the Manner and Spirit of Nations and on the Principal Occurrences in History, Frederick Barbarossa, House of Hohenstaufen, Karl V, Otto the Great, Voltaire

Otto I, the Great. Holy Roman Emperor, Duke of Saxony.

After developing my love of royalty with my interest in the British monarchy my next fascination was with the German monarchies. The history of monarchy in Germany can make your head spin. We have the Carolingian Empire founded by Charlemagne, the Kingdom of Germany and then the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. Historians are all over the map with these terms, some seeing all of these as one entity while others see them as three distinct entities. I think the truth is that what became the Holy Roman Empire was something that had evolved over time and has been connected to previous empires.

On Christmas day 800, Charles the Great (Charlemagne) was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III. His actual title was Imperator Romanorum, Emperor of the Romans. I recall one historian which I watched on TV discussing a biography of Charlemagne mention that his empire really did not have a name. He was supposed to have revived the Roman Empire in the West. The Eastern Roman Empire, or the Byzantine Empire as it was called, was still thriving in the year 800CE with Irene of Athens as the reigning Empress. However, today Charlemagne’s Empire is not seen as a continuation of the Roman Empire but the originator of a new Empire which eventually was called the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. This points to an interesting aspect of historiography; terms and labels that we are now familiar with were often inventions by later historians and placed retrospectively on the past. My mentioning of the Byzantine Empire is a good example. To its contemporaries the Byzantine Empire was known simply as the Roman Empire.

Charlemagne’s empire was eventually dived up with the western half evolving into the Kingdom of France. The last Imperator Romanorum of Charlemagne’s empire, according to some historians, was Berengar of Friuli (c845-924) who ruled from 915 until his death in 924. Some historians count Arnulf of Carinthia (850-899) as the last official holder of the imperial title from 896 until his death in 899. The next definitive holder of the Imperial title would be Otto of Saxony (912-973) who was crowned Emperor on February 2, 962, by Pope John XII. Otto’s father, Heinrich the Fowler is numbered as Heinrich I among the Holy Roman Emperors despite never holding the imperial title. Heinrich the Fowler held the title Rex Teutonicorum “King of the Germans.” Reading on the history of the German Kingdom it looks as if several monarchs reigned at the same time. For example, Heinrich I’s immediate predecessor, Conrad I (890-918) who ruled as a German King from 911 until his death in 918 is also listed as a Holy Roman Emperor although he never held the imperial title.

With such confusion among historians over this time period (it still makes my head spin) it is easy to see how Otto can be called the first of the Holy Roman Emperors since it was the revival of his title which evolved into the Holy Roman Empire. The German aspect of the nation wouldn’t be emphasized until the end of the Hohenstaufen Dynasty under Conrad IV (1250-1254) when the Italian possessions of the empire were lost. It was also during the Hohenstaufen Dynasty when the term “Holy” was attached to the empire to signify its close association with the Church. Emperors were not considered to have adopted their office until officially crowned by the pope. As future emperors wanted to assert their own authority the papal coronation was done away with. Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I adopted the title Erwählter Römischer Kaiser (Elected Roman Emperor) with approval of Pope Julius II, ending the custom that the Holy Roman Emperor had to be crowned by the pope.

The Holy Roman Empire continues to fascinate me and even the times which came after it . After looking at the complexities of its history I can agree with Voltaire’s famous description of the empire in his 1756 Essay on the Manner and Spirit of Nations and on the Principal Occurrences in History, that the Empire as “neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire.”

Crown of the Holy Roman Emperors

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On This Day ~ July 31…

Events:

1009 – Pope Sergius IV becomes the 142nd pope, succeeding Pope John XVIII.
1451 – Jacques Cœur is arrested by order of Charles VII of France.
1741 – Charles Albert of Bavaria invades Upper Austria and Bohemia.
1993 – Albert II succeeds to the kingdom of Belgium

Births:

1396 – Philippe III, Duke of Burgundy (d. 1467)
1527 – Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1576)

Deaths:

1993 – King Baudouin of Belgium (b. 1930)

Carlos II and the War of the Spanish Succession

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Carlos I of Spain, Carlos II of Spain, Duke of Anjou, Ferdinand III, Ferdinand of Spain, Holy Roman Emperor, Inbreeding, Isabella of Spain, Joanna of Castile, Kingdom of Aragon, Kingdom of Catile, Kingdom of France, Kingdom of Spain, Louis XIII of France, Louis XIV of France, Philip of Austria, War of the Spanish Succession

HM King Felipe V of Spain 

Last week I examined the lineage of King Carlos II of Spain (1665-1700). Because of his inbreeding he had many physical and metal difficulties and despite two marriages he never fathered and heir leaving the succession to the Spanish throne contested by the major European powers. In this post I will examine the genealogical aspect to the War of the Spanish Succession and I won’t delve too deeply into the political aspect except only when it is necessary.

In 1700 when Carlos II died Spain was still a major European power so the vacancy to the throne left two rival dynasties, the French royal house of Bourbon and the Austrian house of Habsburg, eager to claim the prize of the crown of Spain. One branch of the Habsburg family had ruled Spain since Philipp the Fair (Felipe I) mounted the throne of Castile in 1506. The French house of Bourbon claimed the throne from their descent from Felipe III of Spain (1578-1621). King Louis XIV of France and Navarre had a strong claim to the Spanish crown being a grandson of Felipe III. However, with the rules of male preferred primogeniture, Louis XIV’s son, Louis, the Grand Dauphin (1661-1711) actually had the better claim being the nephew of King Carlos II via his eldest sister, Maria Theresa, wife of Louis XIV. Since the Grand Dauphin was also heir to the throne of France he would have united the crowns of France and Spain creating an enormously powerful empire which would have dominated Europe. To the other powers of Europe this was not acceptable.

The Habsburg heir to the Spanish throne was Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I (1658-1705) who was the grandson of Felipe III of Spain via his younger daughter, Maria Anna of Spain, who was also the second wife of King Felipe IV of Spain. Leopold was married to his cousin Margaret Theresa of Spain (1651-1673) sister to King Carlos II. If Leopold I had become king of Spain this would have reunited the great Empire held by Holy Roman Emperor Karl V who was also King Carlos I of Spain (1516-1558). This too was unacceptable to the European powers. Even though Carlos II and Leopold I were both from the Hapsburg dynasty the French Bourbons, Louis the Grand Dauphin specifically, held the better claim in that both Louis XIV and his son were descended via older daughters of the Spanish kings than were their Hapsburg rivals. Since both Louis the Grand Dauphin and Leopold I were unacceptable a compromise had to be found.

Both Leopold and Louis XIV were willing to pass their claims to others in their respective dynasties. Louis desired his grandson, Philippe Duc d’Anjou (1683-1746, second son of the Grand Dauphin to succeed to the crown of Spain. The Duc d’Anjou was even favored by Carlos II (the struggle to solve this problem occurred prior to the kings death). Leopold desired that the Spanish crown would go to his younger son, Archduke Karl of Austria. Even those these options reduced the likelihood that the Spanish crown would be united to either France or the Holy Roman Empire neither were acceptable to the other European powers specifically King William III of England and Scotland, Stadholder of the Netherlands.

A candidate was finally found which all parties could agree on. He was not a member of either the Hapsburg or Bourbon dynasty, he was a member of the German Wittelsbach family of Bavaria. Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria, (1692-1699) was the son of Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria (1679-1726) and his first wife, Maria Antonia of Austria. Joseph Ferdinand’s mother, Maria Antonia of Austria, was the daughter of Leopold I and a maternal granddaughter of King Felipe IV of Spain. Carlos II formally recognized Joseph Ferdinand as his heir and Joseph was given the title Prince of Asturias, the title typically held by the heir to the Spanish crown. This matter of the Spanish crown was not settled for long. On February 3, 1699 the young Prince of Asturias died at the age of seven. There were rumors that he had been poisoned.

This left the major powers all scrambling once again. Treaties were made up signed and ignored. At one point the succession was agreed to go to Archduke Karl as long as Spain’s Italian possessions were not included. The Austrians were not happy with this option. In Spain feelings were mixed as to who their next king should be but they did not want their Spanish possessions in Italy to be divided. However, many statesmen within Spain favored the Duc d’Anjou. Carlos II made a Will bequeathing the crown to the Duc d’Anjou and stipulated that should the Duc d’Anjou inherit the French throne the succession would pass to his brother, Charles Duc de Berri. After the Duc de Berri the Archduke Karl was in line for the succession.

When Carlos II died in 1700 the Duc d’Anjou was proclaimed King of Spain as Felipe V (1700-1746). In violation of one of the treaties all of the Spanish territories in Italy went to Felipe. Despite agreements with England, France placed pressure on England by cutting them off from Spanish trade. With the death of the exiled King James II-VII of England and Scotland in France, Louis recognized his son, James, as the rightful King James III-VIII of England and Scotland. This greatly angered William III. The Austrians were also angered by the inclusion of the Italian territories in the Spanish succession and within the year sent troops into Milan headed by Prince Eugene of Savoy.

War broke out in 1701 and was to last until 1714. Leopold I died in 1705 and was succeeded as Emperor by his eldest son Josef I (1705-1711). In 1711 when Josef I died his brother, Archduke Karl, Austrian claimant to the Spanish throne, succeed as Holy Roman Emperor Karl VI. With the possibility of Karl become King of Spain this created the same problem, of uniting the two Empires, that had been so unacceptable to the majority of the European powers in the first place. England found themselves in a precarious position in that their  ally, Karl VI, was in a position they thoroughly opposed.  Because of this change of circumstances the war was ended. In signing the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 Felipe V was recognized as King of Spain and renounced his place in the succession for the french Crown for himself and his descendant. This renunciation has ripple effects through today as the heir of the Spanish descendants of Felipe V, Louis Alphonse, Duc d’Anjou, claims the vacant French throne on the grounds that the Treaty of Utrecht violated French laws governing the succession.

https://europeanroyalhistory.wordpress.com/2012/05/24/pretenders-to-the-throne-france-part-i/

https://europeanroyalhistory.wordpress.com/2012/05/25/pretenders-to-the-throne-france-part-ii/

Happy Birthday……..

European Royal History Blog wishes a Happy Birthday to… HRH Infanta Pilar of Spain, Duchess of Badajoz, Grandee of Spain, Dowager Viscountess de la Torre.

 

On This Day ~ July 30…

Events:

1656 – Swedish forces under the command of King Charles X Gustav defeat the forces of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at the Battle of Warsaw.

Births:

1872 – Princess Clémentine of Belgium (d. 1955)

1936 – Infanta Pilar of Spain, Duchess of Badajoz, Grandee of Spain, Dowager Viscountess de la Torre

Deaths:

579 – Pope Benedict I (birth date unknown)
1683 – Maria Theresa of Spain, Spanish-born Queen consort of France, wife of Louis XIV of France (b. 1638)
1900 – Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Duke of Edinburgh, Second son of Britain’s Queen Victoria (b. 1844)

 

On This Day ~ July 29…

Events:

1030 – Ladejarl-Fairhair succession wars: Battle of Stiklestad – King Olaf II fights and dies trying to regain his Norwegian throne from the Danes.
1108 – King Louis VI Succeeds to the throne of France.
1565 – The widowed Mary, Queen of Scots, marries Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, Duke of Albany, at Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh, Scotland.
1567 – James VI is crowned King of Scots at Stirling.
1900 – In Italy, King Umberto I of Italy is assassinated by the anarchist Gaetano Bresci. His eldest son succeeds him as King Vittorio Emanuel III of Italy.
1981 – A worldwide television audience of over 700 million people watch the wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer at St Paul’s Cathedral in London.

Births:

1166 – Henry II, Count of Champagne and King of Jerusalem (d. 1197)
1846 – Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil (d. 1921)

Deaths:

238 – Pupienus, Roman Emperor (b. c. 164 or c. 178)
238 – Balbinus, Roman Emperor (b. c. 165)
1030 – Olaf II of Norway (b. 995)
1095 – King Ladislaus I of Hungary (b. c. 1040)
1099 – Pope Urban II (b. 1042)
1108 – King Philippe I of France (b. 1052)
1644 – Pope Urban VIII (b. 1568)
1900 – King Umberto I of Italy (b. 1844)

On This Day ~ July 28….

Events:

1540 – Thomas Cromwell is executed at the order of Henry VIII of England on charges of treason. Henry marries his fifth wife, Catherine Howard, on the same day.
1914 – World War I: Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia after Serbia rejects the conditions of an ultimatum sent by Austria on July 23 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

Births:

1347 – Queen Margaret of Naples (d. 1412)
1860 – Grand Duchess Anastasia Mikhailovna of Russia (d. 1922)

Deaths:

450 – Theodosius II, Byzantine Emperor (b. 401)
1057 – Pope Victor II (b. c. 1018)
1128 – William Clito, Count of Flanders (b. 1102)
1230 – Leopold VI, Duke of Austria (b. 1176)
1844 – Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon I (b. 1768)
1849 – King Charles Albert of Sardinia (b. 1798)

 

Queen arrives at the Olympics. ;)

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2012 Olympics, 2012. Parliament, Buckingham Palace, Daniel Craig, James Bond, kings and queens of the United Kingdom

Her Majesty has a wonderful sense of humor!! Queen arrives at the Olympics. 😉 

 

HIM German Emperor Wilhelm II: Part 2

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Entente Cordiale, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, King Edward VII of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, Kingdom of Prussia, Morocco, Otto von Bismark, Sultan Abdelaziz of Morocco, Tangier, The First Moroccan Crisis, Triple Alliance, Triple Entente, World War I

As I mentioned in last week’s feature on Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, he is a bit of an enigma for me. I find him fascinating to study, as is the time period in which he lived, but I am not sure what to make of him at times.

One of the issues I want to touch on today is his role in World War I. After the war there were many cries to “Hang the Kaiser” as he was seen as responsible for the war. I always wondered how a war that was triggered by the assassination of an Austrian Archduke got blamed on the German Emperor? In viewing his reign one can see how ill equipped for parts of his role he really was. Unlike his grandfather, who let Bismark pretty much run the country, Wilhelm wanted the reigns of power in his own hands, or at least in the hands of ministers he felt he could control. Within 2 years of his accession Bismark, the man who almost single handily forged the empire, was summarily dismissed. Wilhelm took an active role in politics, most notable in foreign policy. As noted last week his impulsive nature and ability to stick his foot in his mouth cost him dearly during the Daily Telegraph affair. His other blunder was the 1905 Moroccan Crisis.

In 1904 the Entente Cordiale between Britain and France, established with the helpful diplomacy of King Edward VII of the United Kingdom of Great Britain (the Kaiser’s Uncle, whom he disliked) left Germany feeling isolated. Morocco was a French protectorate seeking greater autonomy from France. On March 31, 1905, Kaiser Wilhelm II landed at Tangier, Morocco and held a conference with the representatives of Sultan Abdelaziz of Morocco. Wilhelm II declared he had come to support the sovereignty of the Sultan and this was perceived by France and its allies to be a direct challenge to France’s influence over Morocco. As tensions quickly mounted and with war between France and Germany almost a certainty, a conference was set up to avoid a war and to resolve the conflict. This lead to a 13 nation tribunal which heavily sided with France, including Germany’s sole ally, Austria-Hungary. Although a war was averted the whole crisis lead to the Kaiser feeling that both he and Germany were humiliated. Despite the war being averted this incident lead to tensions between the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente that lead to the start of World War I.

Did the Kaiser want the war? From all the sources I have read I have come to a definite maybe on that question. It seems he himself had mixed feeling about the war from the start. He certainly was a saber rattler during his reign and wanting to be seen as a Prussian Warlord was part of the image he liked to portray. He also seemed to feel that Germany was a late comer as a European power and he wanted Germany to be the dominant power in Europe. It was attitudes like that, and Germany was not alone in this instance, which lead to an atmosphere that was ripe for war in 1914. I also have read that the Kaiser wanted to avoid the war and it seems in the last moments before the start of the war that may have been true. What I think is closer to the truth is that both the Kaiser and his ministers were overconfident. Germany offered Austria-Hungary full and unconditional support, thinking that Austria would have a brief war with Serbia and that Germany’s presence would hold off Russia. I am sure they could not foresee a major European and World wide conflict over this issue.

The Kaiser was a symbol for the war. I think the evidence that he was a symbol for the war, and possibly even a scapegoat, was the fact that once the war started the Kaiser seems to fade into the woodwork of history. With both Hindenburg and Ludendorff taking over the day to day operations of the war the Kaiser was sent on his train to the troops to offer moral support. He did not have much decision making power or authority during this time.

I will conclude Part III nest week and I will look at his abdication, his life in exile and his relationships with his family and the vast array of royal relatives.

On This Day ~ July 27…

Events:

1054 – Siward, Earl of Northumbria invades Scotland and defeats Macbeth, King of Scotland somewhere north of the Firth of Forth.
1189 – Friedrich Barbarossa arrives at Niš, the capital of Serbian King Stefan Nemanja, during the Third Crusade.
1214 – Battle of Bouvines : Philip II of France decisively defeats Imperial, English and Flemish armies, effectively ending John of England’s Angevin Empire.
1900 – Kaiser Wilhelm II makes a speech comparing Germans to Huns; for years afterwards, “Hun” would be a disparaging name for Germans.

Deaths:

432 – Pope Celestine I
1101 – Conrad, King of Germany and Italy (b. 1074)
1276 – King James I of Aragon (b. 1208)
1365 – Duke Rudolf IV of Austria (b. 1339)