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Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, coronation, Duke of Enghien, Emperor of the French, First Counsel, Napoleon Bonaparte, Pope Pius VII, Prince Louis Antoine de Bourbon, Treaty of Amiens
After a decade of constant warfare, France and Britain signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802, bringing the Revolutionary Wars to an end.
With Europe at peace and the economy recovering, Bonaparte’s popularity soared to its highest levels under the consulate, both domestically and abroad. In a new plebiscite during the spring of 1802, the French public came out in huge numbers to approve a constitution that made the Consulate permanent, essentially elevating Bonaparte to dictator for life.
During the time of the consulate, Napoleon faced several royalist and Jacobin assassination plots, including the Conspiration des poignards (Dagger plot) in October 1800 and the Plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise (also known as the Infernal Machine) two months later.
In January 1804, his police uncovered an assassination plot against him that was ostensibly sponsored by the Bourbon family, the former rulers of France. On the advice of Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, Napoleon ordered the kidnapping of Prince Louis Antoinede Bourbon of France, Duke of Enghien, violating the sovereignty of Baden.
Prince Louis Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of Enghien (August 2, 1772 – March 21, 1804) was a member of the House of Bourbon of France. Napoleon Bonaparte, brought charges against him of aiding Britain and plotting against Napoleon.
Prince Louis Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of Enghien was the only son of Louis Henri de Bourbon and Bathilde d’Orléans. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, he was a Prince du Sang (Prince of the Blood).
His mother’s full name was Louise Marie Thérèse Bathilde d’Orléans; she was the only surviving daughter of Louis Philippe d’Orléans (grandson of the Regent Philippe II Duc d’Orléans) and Louise Henriette de Bourbon. His uncle was the future Philippe Égalité and he was thus a first cousin of the future Louis-Philippe I, King of the French.
He was also doubly descended from King Louis XIV of France and Navarre through his legitimated daughters, Mademoiselle de Blois and Mademoiselle de Nantes.
Prince Louis Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of Enghien was quickly executed after a secret military trial, even though he had not been involved in the plot. Enghien’s execution infuriated royal courts throughout Europe, becoming one of the contributing political factors for the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars.
To expand his power, Napoleon used these assassination plots to justify the creation of an imperial system based on the Roman model. He believed that a Bourbon restoration would be more difficult if his family’s succession was entrenched in the constitution.
Launching yet another referendum, Napoleon was elected as Emperor of the French by a tally exceeding 99%. As with the Life Consulate two years earlier, this referendum produced heavy participation, bringing out almost 3.6 million voters to the polls.
A keen observer of Bonaparte’s rise to absolute power, Madame de Rémusat, explains that “men worn out by the turmoil of the Revolution […] looked for the domination of an able ruler” and that “people believed quite sincerely that Bonaparte, whether as consul or emperor, would exert his authority and save [them] from the perils of anarchy.”
Coronation
Napoleon’s coronation, at which Pope Pius VII officiated, took place at Notre Dame de Paris, on December 2, 1804. Napoleon wore a golden laurel wreath throughout the proceedings, representing victory, peace and civic virtue. For the coronation, he raised a replica of Charlemagne’s crown over his own head in a symbolic gesture, but did not wear it atop the wreath.
All present rose spontaneously, the men waving their hats. Joséphine, Napoleon’s wife, knelt in front of him to receive her crown on her head, the event commemorated in the official painting by Jacques-Louis David. Joséphine became only the second queen to be crowned and anointed in French history, other than Marie de’ Medici.
Napoleon was then crowned King of Italy, with the Iron Crown of Lombardy, at the Cathedral of Milan on May 26, 1805. He created eighteen Marshals of the Empire from among his top generals to secure the allegiance of the army on May 18, 1804, the official start of the French Empire.