May 26, 961 King Otto I elects his six-year-old son Otto II as heir apparent and co-ruler of the East Frankish Kingdom.

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Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimiskes, Byzantine Princess, Emperor Otto II, King of East Francia, King of Germany, King Rudolph II of Burgundy, Matilda of Ringelheim, Otto the Great, Phokas Family, Theophanu

May 26, 961 King Otto I elects his six-year-old son Otto II as heir apparent and co-ruler of the East Frankish Kingdom. He is crowned at Aachen, and placed under the tutelage of his grandmother Matilda of Ringelheim.

Otto II (955 – December 7, 983), called the Red, was Holy Roman Emperor from 973 until his death in 983. A member of the Ottonian dynasty, Otto II was the youngest and sole surviving son of Otto I the Great and Adelaide of Italy (Burgundy) daughter of King Rudolf II of Burgundy, a member of the Elder House of Welf, and Bertha of Swabia.

Otto II was made joint-ruler of the Kingdom of East Francia ion May 26, 961 at an early age, and his father named him co-Emperor in 967 to secure his succession to the throne. His father also arranged for Otto II to marry the Byzantine Princess Theophanu, who would be his wife until his death.

Otto II had only one known wife. On April 14, 972, Otto II married Theophanu, a Byzantine Princess of the Phokas family who was the cousin of reigning Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimiskes.

According to the marriage certificate issued on April 14, 972 Theophanu is identified as the neptis (niece or granddaughter) of Emperor John I Tzimiskes (925–976, reigned 969–976) who was of Armenian and Byzantine Greek descent. She was of distinguished noble heritage: the Vita Mahthildis identifies her as augusti de palatio and the Annales Magdeburgenses describe her as Grecam illustrem imperatoriae stirpi proximam, ingenio facundam.

Recent research tends to concur that she was most probably the daughter of Tzimiskes’ brother-in-law (from his first marriage) Constantine Skleros (c. 920–989) and cousin Sophia Phokas, the daughter of Kouropalatēs Leo Phokas, brother of Emperor Nikephoros II (c. 912–969).

When Otto the Great died, the smooth succession to the imperial throne of Otto II had long been guaranteed. Otto II had been king of East Francia for twelve years and Emperor for five at the time of Otto the Great’s death. Unlike his father, Otto II did not have any brothers to contest his claims to the throne.

On May 8, the nobles of the Empire assembled before Otto II and, according to the Saxon Chronicler Widukind of Corvey, “elected” Otto II as his father’s successor. One of Otto II’s first acts was to confirm the rights and possessions of the Archbishop of Magdeburg. Although Otto II had succeeded peacefully to the throne, internal divisions of power still remained unaddressed. During his first seven years as Emperor, he was constantly occupied with maintaining Imperial power against internal rivals and external enemies.

Otto II spent his reign continuing his father’s policy of strengthening Imperial rule in East Francia and extending the borders of the Empire deeper into Southern Italy. Otto II also continued the work of Otto I in subordinating the Catholic Church to Imperial control.

Otto II was a member of the Ottonian dynasty, which ruled the Kingdom of East Francia (and later the Holy Roman Empire) from 919 to 1024. In relation to the other members of his dynasty, Otto II was the grandson of Heinrich I, son of Otto I, father of Otto III, and a first-cousin once removed to Heinrich II.

May 22, 1246: Heinrich Raspe, Landgrave of Thuringia is elected King of the Romans (Germany) in opposition to Conrad IV, King of the Romans

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Conrad IV of Germany, Election, Henry Raspe, Holy Roman Empire, King of Germany, King of the Romans, Landgrave of Thuringia, Pope Innocent IV

Heinrich Raspe (c. 1204 – February 26, 1247) was the Landgrave of Thuringia from 1231 until 1239 and again from 1241 until his death. In 1246, with the support of the Papacy, he was elected King of Germany (King of the Romans) in opposition to the elected Conrad IV King of Germany (King of the Romans) but his contested reign lasted a mere nine months.

Biography

Heinrich Raspe was born c. 1204 to Hermann I, Landgrave of Thuringia and Sophia of Wittelsbach. In 1226, Heinrich’s brother Ludwig IV, Landgrave of Thuringia, died en route to the Sixth Crusade, and Heinrich Raspe became regent for his under-age nephew Hermann II, Landgrave of Thuringia. He managed to expel his nephew and the boy’s young mother, St. Elisabeth of Hungary, from the line of succession and ca. 1231 formally succeeded his brother as landgrave.

In 1242 Heinrich Raspe, together with King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia, he was selected by Emperor Friedrich II to be administrator of Germany for Friedrich’s under-age son Conrad.

After Pope Innocent IV imposed a ban on Friedrich in 1245, Heinrich Raspe changed sides, and on May 22, 1246 he was elected anti-king in opposition to Conrad. The strong papal prodding that led to his election earned Heinrich Raspe the derogatory moniker of “Pfaffenkönig” (priests’ king). The papal legate in Germany was Filippo da Pistoia. In August 1246 Heinrich Raspe defeated Conrad in the Battle of Nidda in southern Hesse, and laid siege to Ulm and Reutlingen. He suffered a mortal wound, and died February 16, 1247 in Wartburg Castle near Eisenach in Thuringia.

Personal life

In 1228, Heinrich Raspe married Elisabeth of Brandenburg (1206-1231), the daughter of Albrecht II, Margrave of Brandenburg and his wife Matilda of Groitzsch, the daughter of Landgrave Conrad II of Lusatia from the House of Wettin (Saxony).

After her death, he married Gertrude of Babenburg (c. 1210/1215 – 1241), the daughter of Leopold VI, Duke of Austria and Theodora Angelina Vatatzes the daughter of Isaac Komnenos Vatatzes, the grandson of the Byzantine general Theodore Vatatzes and the purple-born princess Eudokia Komnene, daughter of Emperor John II Komnenos (r. 1118–1143), and of Anna Komnene Angelina, the second daughter of Emperor Alexios III Angelos).

After Gertrude of Babenburg’s death, he married Beatrice of Brabant (1225-1288), the daughter of Heinrich II, Duke of Brabant and Marie of Hohenstaufen who was herself daughter of Philipp of Swabia, King of the Romans. Béatrice had five siblings, including Duke Heinrich III, and Marie who was executed for infidelity by her husband, Ludwig II, Duke of Bavaria

All three of his marriages were childless. After his death, the Emperor enfeoffed Thuringia to Heinrich III, Margrave of Meissen, the son of his sister Jutta.

March 26, 1027: Coronation of Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor

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coronation, Emperor Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor, King of East Francia, King of Germany, Pope John XIX

Conrad II (c. 989/990 – June 4, 1039), also known as Conrad the Elder and Conrad the Salic, was the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire from 1027 until his death in 1039. The first of a succession of four Salian emperors, who reigned for one century until 1125, Conrad ruled the kingdoms of Germany (from 1024), Italy (from 1026) and Burgundy (from 1033).

The son of Franconian count Henry of Speyer (also Henry of Worms) and Adelaide of Metz of the Matfriding dynasty, that had ruled the Duchy of Lorraine from 959 until 972, Conrad inherited the titles of count of Speyer and Worms during childhood after his father had died around the year 990. He extended his influence beyond his inherited lands, as he came into favor of the princes of the kingdom.

In 1016 Conrad married the twice widowed duchess Gisela of Swabia, daughter of Duke Herman II of Swabia who, in 1002, had unsuccessfully claimed the German throne upon Emperor Otto III’s death, and had lost the election to Emperor Heinrich II. Gisela had first been married to Count Bruno I of Brunswick the same year.

Following Bruno’s death around 1010, Gisela had married Ernst I of the House of Babenberg. Through this marriage, Ernst I inherited the Duchy of Swabia upon the death of Gisela’s brother Duke Herman III of Swabia in 1012. The marriage produced two sons: Ernst II and Herman. After the death of Ernst I in 1015, Emperor Heinrich II named Ernst II as Duke of Swabia.

As Gisela’s new husband, Conrad hoped to serve as regent for his minor stepson in the administration of the duchy, seeing it as an opportunity to increase his own rank and subsequently make a claim for his own duchy. Emperor Heinrich II blocked this attempt by placing the guardianship of Ernst II, and regency over Swabia, in the hands of Archbishop Poppo of Trier in 1016. This action further strained the already rough relationship between the imperial House of Otto and the Salian family.

On September 4, 1024, the German princes gathered at Kamba, a historical name for an area on the east banks of the Rhine opposite the modern German town of Oppenheim. Now the location of Kamba is marked with a small equestrian statue of Conrad II. The chronicler and Conrad’s chaplain, Wipo of Burgundy, attended the meeting and documented the event. Archbishop Aribo presided over the assembly.

Conrad presented himself as a candidate for election, as did his younger cousin Conrad. Both were descendants of Emperor Otto I by their common grandfather Otto of Worms, son of Liutgarde, one of Otto’s daughters. Although further members of the Ottonian dynasty existed, none were seriously considered eligible.

The Duchy of Saxony adopted a neutral strategy while the Duchy of Lorraine favored the younger Conrad. A majority of the assembled princes favored the elder Conrad, as the father of a seven-year-old son implied a more stable dynastic future for the kingdom. As president of the assembly, Archbishop Aribo cast the first vote and supported the elder Conrad. He was joined by the other clerics in support of him. The secular dukes then cast their votes for the elder Conrad as well. Archbishop Pilgrim of Cologne, Duke Gothelo I of Lower Lorraine and Duke Friedrich II of Upper Lorraine did not support him.

Conrad was crowned King of Germany by Archbishop Aribo in Mainz Cathedral on September 8, 1024 at the age of 34. To mark his election, Conrad commissioned the construction of Speyer Cathedral, near his ancestral home of Worms. Construction began in 1030. Archbishop Aribo, as archbishop of Mainz, was already the chancellor of Germany. Conrad wanted to reward the archbishop for his electoral support, so he made Aribo chancellor of Italy as well, making Aribo the second most powerful man in the Holy Roman Empire as the imperial chancellor.

Aribo refused to crown Conrad’s wife Gisela as queen as their marriage violated canon law. Conrad refused to accept Archbishop Aribo’s position. Archbishop Pilgrim of Cologne saw the situation as an opportunity to restore his relationship with the king, after refusing to support Conrad’s election, and he crowned Gisela queen on September 21, 1024. The political reorientation of Pilgrim also weakened the opposition towards the new king.

On March 26, 1027, Pope John XIX crowned Conrad and his wife Gisela as Emperor and Empress, respectively, in Old Saint Peter’s Basilica in Rome. The event lasted seven days and was attended by Conrad’s son and heir Heinrich; Canute the Great, King of the English, Denmark and Norway; Rudolph III of Burgundy and around 70 senior clerics, including the Archbishops of Cologne, Mainz, Trier, Magdeburg, Salzburg, Milan and Ravenna.

Rudolph III of Burgundy’s attendance suggested surprisingly good relations between Burgundy and the Holy Roman Empire. During the festivities a power struggle between the archbishops of Milan and Ravenna ensued and was settled in favor of Milan. Subsequently, Conrad left Rome and toured south to receive homage from the Southern Italian principalities of Capua and Salerno and the Duchy of Benevento.

History of the Kingdom of East Francia: Emperor Heinrich IV

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Emperor Henry IV, Holy Roman Empire, King of Germany, King of the Romans, Pope Gregory VII, The Investiture Controversy

There is a point I would like to reiterate: The Kingdom of East Francia was not referred to as the Kingdom of Germany or Regnum Teutonicum by contemporary sources until the 11th century which corresponds to the reign of Emperor Heinrich II as mentioned yesterday.

I’d like to back track a bit because the sources I’ve been using seem to be contradictory and confusing. My decision to do this series was an attempt to remove the confusion between the titles King of East Francia, King of Germany and King of the Romans. The issue is many sources are using the last two titles interchangeably.

For example: One source states that Heinrich II was the first to be called “King of the Germans” (Rex Teutonicorum). Yesterday, the source I used claimed he used the title Rex Romanorum or King of the Romans for the first time.

The Holy Roman Empire

In Yesterday’s article I mentioned that with the reign of Heinrich II the tradition of calling oneself King of the Romans from the election as King until the Imperial Papal Coronation began at this time.

However, while researching today’s part of this series I found the contradictory claims that states it wasn’t until the reign of Emperor Heinrich IV that the title of King of the Romans was used from the election as King until the Imperial Papal Coronation…as we will see below.

My problem is that instead of researching the entire topic I have written each section one at a time. I wish I had written the entire series at once then divided into sections to avoid the confusion.

I may rewrite this at some future date. Oh well, I shall forage onward and try to untangle the confusion by the end of the series…..

After the reign of Heinrich II a German king’s claim to an Imperial coronation was increasingly contested by the papacy culminating in the fierce Investiture Controversy.

Briefly, The Investiture Controversy, was a conflict between the Church and the state in medieval Europe over the ability to choose and install bishops (investiture) and abbots of monasteries and the pope himself. A series of popes in the 11th and 12th centuries undercut the power of the Holy Roman Emperor and other European monarchies, and the controversy led to nearly 50 years of conflict.

Heinrich IV, Holy Roman Emperor

Emperor Heinrich III went to the northeast to deal with a Slav uprising. He fell ill on the way and took to his bed. He made Beatrice and Matilda and had those with him swear allegiance to the young Heinrich whom he commended the pope, present.

On October 5, not yet forty, Emperor Heinrich III died at Bodfeld, the imperial hunting lodge in the Harz mountains.

His son and heir, a six-year-old minor, Heinrich IV, was elected to rule the Empire in 1056 and he adopted Rex Romanorum (King of the Romans) as a title to emphasize his sacred entitlement to be crowned Emperor by the Pope.

However, as part of the Investiture Controversy Pope Gregory VII insisted on using the term Teutonicorum Rex (“King of the Germans”) for the King in order to imply that Heinrich’s authority was merely local and did not extend over the whole Empire.

Pope Gregory VII’s usage of the title Teutonicum Rex was deemed as derogatory and an insult by Heinrich when he implied that Heinrich’s rule didn’t extend the totality of the Empire.

Heinrich IV continued to regularly use the title Rex Romanorum until he was crowned Emperor by Antipope Clement III in 1084. As mentioned yesterday, successors of Emperor Heinrich II (or was it Emperor Heinrich IV?) imitated this practice, and were called Rex Romanorum after their election as King and Romanorum Imperator after their Papal coronations.

The practice had developed where the new monarch that had been elected King (King of the Romans, King of Germany) would travel to Rome and be crowned Emperor by the Pope. Because it was rarely possible for the elected King to proceed immediately to Rome for his crowning, several years might elapse between election and coronation, and some Kings never completed the journey to Rome at all.

Not all Kings of the Romans made the journey to Rome due to hostile relations with the Pope, or because either the pressure of business at home or warfare in Germany or Italy made it impossible for the King to make the journey. In such cases, the king might retain the title “King of the Romans” for his entire reign. This occurred at least four times.

As a suitable title for the King between his election and his coronation as Emperor, Rex Romanorum (King of the Romans) would stress the plenitude of his authority over the Empire and his warrant to be future Emperor (Imperator futurus) without infringing upon the Papal privilege. This seems to have resolved the Investiture Controversy.

Heinrich IV, Holy Roman Emperor

As I sort through the information to which King started to use the title King of the Romans upon their election, I believe the thing to take away at this point is that during the reign of the Ottonian Dynasty, the Ottonian Kungs seem to have adopted the use of the “Teutonic” label as it helped them to counter critics who questioned how the Ottonians, who were neither Carolingian nor Frankish, could legitimately rule.

The Ottonians, by calling themselves “German” kings, instead presented themselves as rulers of all peoples north of the Alps and east of the Rhine. This “German kingdom” was later regarded as a subdivision of the Empire alongside Italy, Burgundy and Bohemia.

And as I mentioned in a previous entry, by the late eleventh century the term “Kingdom of the Germans” (Regnum Teutonicorum) had become utilised more favourably in Germany due to a growing sense of national identity; by the twelfth century, German historian Otto of Freising had to explain that East Francia was “now called the Kingdom of the Germans”.

Also, historiography seems to use the title King of Germany and King of the Romans interchangeably.

More on this tomorrow!

History of the Kingdom of East Francia: King of the Romans

Tags

Emperor Henry II, Emperor Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor, King of East Francia, King of Germany, King of the Romans, Pope Benedict VIII, Rex Francorum, Rex Romanorum, Rex Teutonicum, Romanorum Imperator

Before I address the title “King of the Romans”, I will do a brief and simple summary of the information thus far.

In 800CE Charlemagne, King of the Franks, was crowned “Emperor of the Romans” by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day. This Empire, which was to be a restart of the old Roman Empire, is known as the Carolingian Empire. When Emperor Charlemagne died in 814 he left this Empire fully intact to his son Louis the Pious.

However, upon Louis’s death in 840CE he divided the empire amongst his three surviving sons. After a brief Civil War and the signing of the Treaty of Verdun in 843, the third son of Louis the Pious, known as Louis the German’ inherited the eastern portion of the Empire, logically known as the Kingdom of East Francia.

After the Carolingian Dynasty died out the Kingdom of East Francia, an elective monarchy, became the possession of the Dukes of Saxony. When King Otto I of East Francia who was also crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope John XII 962 we see a transition from a Frankish Kingdom into a Germanic Kingdom and from there the title of the Kingdom transition to King of the Germans or also called Kingdom of Germany.

Carolingian Empire (Kingdom of East Francia) on the right

The transition from a Kingdom of the Franks to a Kingdom of the Germans was not immediate and it took time. Any firm distinction between the kingdoms of Eastern Francia and the Kingdom of Germany is to some extent the product of later retrospection and historiography.

It is impossible to base this distinction on primary sources, as the name Eastern Francia for the kingdom remained in use long after the name Kingdom of Germany came into use.

The actual title of the monarch did vary over time. During the Ottonian period, it was King of the Franks (Rex Francorum), from the late Salian period it was King of the Romans (Rex Romanorum).

The last of the Ottonian Kings of East Francia to use a different title began with the reign of Emperor Heinrich II (1002–1024) onward. Before assuming the throne Heinrich II was known as Heinrich III, Duke of Bavaria.

In 1001, Emperor Otto III experienced a revolt against his reign in Italy. The Emperor sent word for Heinrich III, Duke of Bavaria to join him with reinforcements from Germany, but then died unexpectedly in January 1002. Otto was only 21 at the time of his death and had left no children and no instructions for the Imperial succession. In the Ottonian dynasty, succession to the throne had belonged to the Saxon branch, not the Bavarian line of which Heinrch III was a member.

As the funeral procession of Emperor Otto III moved through the Duchy of Bavaria in February 1002, Heinrich met the procession to legitimize his claims, and Heinrich demanded Archbishop Heribert of Cologne give him the Imperial Regalia. The Archbishop refused. Heinrich imprisoned the Archbishop and his brother the Bishop of Würzburg.

With neither the symbols of imperial authority, the crown jewels, nor the cooperation of Heribert, Heinrich was unable to convince the nobles attending Otto III’s funeral procession to elect him as king. A few weeks later, at Otto III’s funeral in Aachen Cathedral, Henry again attempted to gain the support of the kingdom’s nobles and was again rejected.

Heinrich II, Holy Roman Emperor

So it was without the support of the kingdom’s nobility that Heinrich took the radical action of having himself anointed and crowned “King of Germany” or to be more accurate “Rex Romanorum” (King of the Romans) by Willigis, Archbishop of Mainz on July 9, 1002 at Mainz.

Heinrich’s action marked the first time a German king was not crowned in Aachen Cathedral since Emperor Otto I began the tradition in 936 and the first time a German king assumed the throne without election by the German nobility. Under the regal name of “King Heinrich II”, he appeared before the Saxons in mid-July in full regal apparel. There, Henry convinced Bernard I, Duke of Saxony, to support his claims to the throne.

Notice Heinrich II, as King, took the title “Rex Romanorum” (King of the Romans) rather than “Rex Teutonicum” (King of Germany). This begins the tradition of taking the title King of the Romans until he could secure his Papal coronation as Emperor.

Kingdom of Germany

Therefore, the title King of the Romans was from that point forward used by the King of Germany following his election by the princes from within the Empire, until he was crowned Emperor by the Pope.

King Heinrich II would have to wait 12 years for that to occur.

There was a great upheaval within the Roman Catholic Church as rival Popes fought for supremacy. I will not go into detail about this at this point.

Fleeing across the Alps to Germany, Pope Benedict VIII appealed to King Heinrich II for protection. Heinrich II agreed to restore Benedict VIII to his papal throne in return for his coronation as Emperor.

Heinrich II arrived in Rome in early 1014, restoring Benedict VIII as pope. On February 14, 1014, Pope Benedict VIII crowned King Heinrich II as Holy Roman Emperor (“Romanorum Imperator”) in St. Peter’s Basilica.

More on the title King of the Romans in my next entry.

July 15, 1291: Death of Rudolph I, Count of Habsburg, King of the Romans

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Austria, Holy Roman Empire, House of Habsburg, King of Germany, King of the Romans, Ottokar II of Bohemia, Pope Gregory X, Pope Innocent IV, Rudolph I, Styria, The Great Interregnum

Rudolph I (1 May 1218 – 15 July 1291) was the first King of the Romans (King of the Germans) from the House of Habsburg. The first of the Count-Kings of the Germans, he reigned from 1273 until his death.

Rudolph was born on May 1, 1218 at Limburgh Castle near Sasbach am Kaiserstuhl in the Breisgau region of present-day southwestern Germany. He was the son of Count Albrecht IV of Habsburg and of Hedwig, daughter of Count Ulrich of Kyburg. Around 1232, he was given as a squire to his uncle, Rudolph I, Count of Laufenburg, to train in knightly pursuits.

Count of Habsburg

At his father’s death in 1239, Rudolph inherited from him large estates around the ancestral seat of Habsburg Castle in the Aargau region of present-day Switzerland as well as in Alsace.

In 1245 Rudolph married Gertrude, daughter of Count Burkhard III of Hohenberg. He received as her dowry the castles of Oettingen, the valley of Weile, and other places in Alsace, and he became an important vassal in Swabia, the former Alemannic German stem duchy.

That same year, Emperor Friedrich II was excommunicated by Pope Innocent IV at the Council of Lyon. Rudolph sided against the Emperor, while the forest communities sided with Friedrich II. This gave them a pretext to attack and damage Neuhabsburg. Rudolph successfully defended it and drove them off. As a result, Rudolph, by siding with the Pope Innocent IV, gained more power and influence.

Rudolph paid frequent visits to the court of his godfather, the Hohenstaufen Emperor Friedrich II, and his loyalty to Friedrich and his son, King Conrad IV of the Germans, was richly rewarded by grants of land. In 1254, he engaged with other nobles of the Staufen party against Bertold II, Bishop of Basle.

When night fell, he penetrated the suburbs of Basle and burnt down the local nunnery, an act for which Pope Innocent IV excommunicated him and all parties involved. As a penance, he took up the cross and joined Ottokar II, King of Bohemia in the Prussian Crusade of 1254. Whilst there, he oversaw the founding of the city of Königsberg, which was named in memory of King Ottokar II.

Rise to Power

The disorder in Germany during the interregnum after the fall of the Hohenstaufen dynasty afforded an opportunity for Count Rudolph to increase his possessions.

His wife was a Hohenberg heiress; and on the death of his childless maternal uncle Count Hartmann IV of Kyburg in 1264, Rudolph seized Hartmann’s valuable estates. Successful feuds with the Bishops of Strasbourg and Basel further augmented his wealth and reputation, including rights over various tracts of land that he purchased from abbots and others.

These various sources of wealth and influence rendered Rudolph the most powerful prince and noble in southwestern Germany (where the tribal Duchy of Swabia had disintegrated, enabling its vassals to become completely independent).

In the autumn of 1273, the prince-electors met to choose a king after Richard of Cornwall had died in England in April 1272. Rudolph’s election in Frankfurt on October 1, 1273, when he was 55 years old, was largely due to the efforts of his brother-in-law, the Hohenzollern burgrave Frederick III of Nuremberg. The support of Duke Albrecht II of Saxony and Elector Palatine Ludwig II had been purchased by betrothing them to two of Rudolph’s daughters.

As a result, within the electoral college, King Ottokar II of Bohemia (1230–1278), himself a candidate for the throne and related to the late Hohenstaufen king Philipp of Swabia (being the son of the eldest surviving daughter), was almost alone in opposing Rudolph

Other candidates were Prince Siegfried I of Anhalt and Margrave Friedrich I of Meissen (1257–1323), a young grandson of the excommunicated Emperor Friedrich II, who did not yet even have a principality of his own as his father was still alive. By the admission of Duke Heinrich XIII of Lower Bavaria instead of the King of Bohemia as the seventh Elector, Rudolph gained all seven votes.

King of the Germans

Rudolph was crowned King of the Germans in Aachen Cathedral on October 24, 1273. To win the approbation of the Pope, Rudolf renounced all imperial rights in Rome, the papal territory, and Sicily, and promised to lead a new crusade.

Great Seal of Rudolph I, King of the Romans, Count of Habsburg

Pope Gregory X, despite the protests of Ottokar II of Bohemia, not only recognised Rudolph himself, but persuaded King Alfonso X of Castile (another grandson of Philipp of Swabia), who had been chosen German (anti-King) in 1257 as the successor to Count Willem II of Holland, to do the same. Thus, Rudolph surpassed the two heirs of the Hohenstaufen dynasty whom he had earlier served so loyally.

Rudolph I, was among several rulers were crowned King of the Romans (King of Germans) but not emperor, although they styled themselves thus, among whom were: Conrad I and Heinrich I the Fowler in the 10th century, and Conrad IV, Adolph and Albrecht I during the interregnum of the late 13th century.

Rudolph’s election marked the end of the Great Interregnum which had begun after the death of the Hohenstaufen Emperor Friedrich II in 1250. Originally a Swabian count, he was the first Habsburg to acquire the duchies of Austria and Styria in opposition to his mighty rival, the Přemyslid king Ottokar II of Bohemia, whom he defeated in the 1278 Battle on the Marchfeld.

In 1281, Rudolph’s first wife died. On February 5, 1284, he married Isabella of Burgundy, daughter of Duke Hugh IV of Burgundy, the Empire’s western neighbor in the Kingdom of France.

In 1291, he attempted to secure the election of his son Albrecht as German king. The electors refused, however, claiming inability to support two kings, but in reality, perhaps, wary of the increasing power of the House of Habsburg. Upon Rudolph death they elected Count Adolf of Nassau.

Rudolph died in Speyer on July 15, 1291 and was buried in Speyer Cathedral. Only one of his sons survived him: Albrecht I. Most of his daughters outlived him, apart from Catherine who had died in 1282 during childbirth and Hedwig who had died in 1285/6.

Rudolph’s reign is most memorable for his establishment of the House of Habsburg as a powerful dynasty in the southeastern part of the realm. In the other territories, the centuries-long decline of Imperial authority since the days of the Investiture Controversy continued, and the princes were largely left to their own devices.

The Austrian territories remained under Habsburg rule for more than 600 years, forming the core of the Habsburg monarchy and the present-day country of Austria. Rudolph played a vital role in raising the comital House of Habsburg to the rank of Imperial princes.

March 4, 1152: Friedrich Barbarossa is elected King of Germany

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Conrad III of Germany, Duke of Swabia, Frederick Barbarossa, Holy Roman Emperor, Judith of Bavaria, King of Germany, Pope Adrian IV

Friedrich I, Barbarossa (1122 – 10 June 1190) was the Holy Roman Emperor from 1155 until his death 35 years later. He was elected King of Germany at Frankfurt on March 4, 1152 and crowned in Aachen on March 9, 1152. He was crowned King of Italy on April 24, 1155 in Pavia and emperor by Pope Adrian IV on June 18, 1155 in Rome.

Two years later, the term sacrum (“holy”) first appeared in a document in connection with his empire. He was later formally crowned King of Burgundy, at Arles on June 30, 1178. He was named Barbarossa by the northern Italian cities which he attempted to rule: Barbarossa means “red beard” in Italian; in German, he was known as Kaiser Rotbart, which means “Emperor Redbeard” in English.

The prevalence of the Italian nickname, even in later German usage, reflects the centrality of the Italian campaigns to his career.

Friedrich was born in mid-December 1122 in Haguenau, to Friedrich II, Duke of Swabia and Judith of Bavaria. He learned to ride, hunt and use weapons, but could neither read nor write, and was also unable to speak the Latin language. Later on, he took part in the Hoftage during the reign of his uncle, King Conrad III, in 1141 in Strasbourg, 1142 in Konstanz, 1143 in Ulm, 1144 in Würzburg and 1145 in Worms.

Before his imperial election, Friedrich was by inheritance Duke of Swabia (1147–1152, as Friedrich III). He was the son of Duke Friedrich II of the Hohenstaufen dynasty and Judith of Bavaria, daughter of Heinrich IX, Duke of Bavaria, from the rival House of Welf. Friedrich, therefore, descended from the two leading families in Germany, making him an acceptable choice for the Empire’s prince-electors.

When Conrad III died in February 1152, only Friedrich and the prince-bishop of Bamberg were at his deathbed. Both asserted afterwards that Conrad III had, in full possession of his mental powers, handed the royal insignia to Friedrich and indicated that Friedrich rather than Conrad III’s own six-year-old son, the future Friedrich IV, Duke of Swabia, succeed him as king.

Friedrich energetically pursued the crown and at Frankfurt on March 4,1152 the kingdom’s princely electors designated him as the next German king.

He was crowned King of the Romans at Aachen several days later, on March 9, 1152. Friedrich’s father was from the Hohenstaufen family, and his mother was from the Welf family, the two most powerful families in Germany. The Hohenstaufens were often called Ghibellines, which derives from the Italianized name for Waiblingen castle, the family seat in Swabia; the Welfs, in a similar Italianization, were called Guelfs.

There, Pope Adrian IV was struggling with the forces of the republican city commune led by Arnold of Brescia, a student of Abelard. As a sign of good faith, Friedrich dismissed the ambassadors from the revived Roman Senate, and Imperial forces suppressed the republicans. Arnold was captured and hanged for treason and rebellion. Despite his unorthodox teaching concerning theology, Arnold was not charged with heresy.

As Friedrich approached the gates of Rome, the Pope advanced to meet him. At the royal tent the king received him, and after kissing the pope’s feet, Friedrich expected to receive the traditional kiss of peace.

Friedrich had declined to hold the Pope Adrian IV’s stirrup while leading him to the tent, however, so Adrian refused to give the kiss until this protocol had been complied with. Friedrich hesitated, and Adrian IV withdrew; after a day’s negotiation, Friedrich agreed to perform the required ritual, reportedly muttering, “Pro Petro, non Adriano — For Peter, not for Adrian.”

Rome was still in an uproar over the fate of Arnold of Brescia, so rather than marching through the streets of Rome, Friedrich and Adrian retired to the Vatican.

The next day, June 18, 1155, Adrian IV crowned Friedrich I Holy Roman Emperor at St Peter’s Basilica, amidst the acclamations of the German army.

The Romans began to riot, and Frederick spent his coronation day putting down the revolt, resulting in the deaths of over 1,000 Romans and many more thousands injured.

The next day, Friedrich, Adrian IV, and the German army travelled to Tivoli. From there, a combination of the unhealthy Italian summer and the effects of his year-long absence from Germany meant he was forced to put off his planned campaign against the Normans of Sicily.

On June 9, 1156 at Würzburg, Friedrich married Beatrice of Burgundy, daughter and heiress of Renaud III, thus adding to his possessions the sizeable realm of the County of Burgundy.

In an attempt to create comity, Emperor Friedrich proclaimed the Peace of the Land, written between 1152 and 1157, which enacted punishments for a variety of crimes, as well as systems for adjudicating many disputes. He also declared himself the sole Augustus of the Roman world, ceasing to recognise Manuel I as Roman (Byzantine) Emperor at Constantinople.

February 14, 1014: Heinrich II is crowned Emperor by Pope Benedict VIII

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Heinrich II (May 6, 973 – July 13, 1024), also known as Saint Heinrich II the Exuberant, was Holy Roman Emperor (“Romanorum Imperator“) from 1014. He died in 1024 and was without an heir the last ruler in the imperial Ottonian line. As Duke of Bavaria, appointed in 995, Heinrich II became King of Germany (“Rex Romanorum“) following the sudden death of his second cousin, Emperor Otto III in 1002, was made King of Italy (“Rex Italiae“) in 1004.

Heinrich II was born in May 973, the son of Duke Heinrich II, Duke of Bavaria, and Gisela of Burgundy. Through his father, he was the grandson of Heinrich I Duke of Bavaria, and the great-grandson of King Heinrich I (The Fowler) of Germany. By his mother, he was the grandson of King Conrad I of Burgundy, and the great-grandson of King Rudolf II of Burgundy.

Royal Standard of the Holy Roman Empire

In 999 Heinrich II married St. Cunigunde of Luxembourg. This marriage granted him an extensive network of contacts in Germany’s western territories. St. Cunigunde was one of eleven children born to Count Siegfried I of Luxembourg (922 – August 15, 998) and a woman called Hedwig. Numerous genealogists have tried to find out which Hedwig it is, there are different views.

One of the most famous theses regarding her identity is from Joseph Depoin, who claims that Hedwig is the daughter of Duke Gilbert of Lorraine and his wife Gerberga of Saxony, the daughter of Heinrich I of Saxony. If this is correct, then Cunigunde married her distant cousin. Because Heinrich II was strongly against consanguineous marriage, it is assumed that this can not be. It can also often be read, that she is the daughter of Berthold of Schweinfurt from the House of Babenberg and Eilika of Walbeck, daughter of Count Lothar. Cunigundes paternal grandmother, also called Cunigunde, was a Carolingian. So Cunigunde of Luxembourg was a seventh-generation descendant of Charlemagne.

Heinrich II crowned as Emperor by Pope Benedict VIII in 1014.

in 1012, Benedict VIII was elected to succeed him. Upon assuming the chair of St. Peter, however, Benedict VIII was forced to flee Rome by Gregory VI, an antipope, whom John Crescentius installed as the new head of the Catholic Church. Fleeing across the Alps to Germany, Benedict VIII appealed to Heinrich II for protection. Heinrich II agreed to restore Benedict VIII to his papal throne in return for his coronation as Emperor.

Near the end of 1013, Heinrich II gathered his army at Augsburg to march into Italy. Earlier in 1013, Heinrich II signed a peace treaty with Duke Bolesław I of Poland at Merseburg. The peace with Poland gave Heinrich II opportunity to address affairs in Italy. On the march across the Alps, Henry was accompanied by his wife, Queen Cunigunde and a number of clerics. Upon reaching Pavia other bishops and abbots joined him. Heinrich II’s forces trapped the King of Italy Arduin in his capital of Ivrea, where he remained until 1015.

Heinrich II arrived in Rome in early 1014, restoring Benedict VIII as Pope. On February 14, 1014, the Pope crowned Heinrich II as Holy Roman Emperor (“Romanorum Imperator“) in St. Peter’s Basilica. Then, under the presidency of the Emperor and Pope, the two held a synod in Rome, appointed five bishops, issued decrees against simony and promoting chastity within the clergy, and ordered the restitution of Church property. Shortly afterwards, the Emperor moved north again where he established the Diocese of Bobbio. Celebrating Easter in Pavia, Italy, Heinrich II then returned to Germany in mid-May 1014. He left the rule of Rome to the Pope and thereafter rarely intervened in the politics of Italy or the Papal States.