The Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. Part V: Austrian & Prussian Rivalry

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Austria, Emperor Charles VI, Emperor Franz I of Lorraine, Empress Maria Theresa, Frederick the Great, House of Habsburg, House of Hohenzollern, Pragmatic Sanction, Prussia, Silesian Wars, Treaty of Dresden

Austria and Prussia were the most powerful states in the Holy Roman Empire by the 18th and 19th centuries and had engaged in a struggle for supremacy in Germany. The rivalry was characterized by major territorial conflicts and economic, cultural and political aspects. Therefore, the rivalry continued after the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved and was an important element of the so called German question in the 19th centure.

The Margraviate of Brandenburg was officially declared one of the seven electorates of the Holy Roman Empire by the Golden Bull of 1356. It had extended most of its territory into the eastern Neumark region, and after the War of the Jülich succession by the 1614 Treaty of Xanten also gained the Duchy of Cleves as well as the counties of Mark and Ravensberg located in northwestern Germany.

Brandenburg finally grew out of the Imperial borders when in 1618 the Hohenzollern electors became dukes of Prussia, then a fief of the Polish Crown, and the lands of Brandenburg-Prussia were ruled in personal union. In 1653, the “Great Elector” Friedrich Wilhelm acquired Farther Pomerania and reached full sovereignty in Ducal Prussia by the 1657 Treaty of Wehlau concluded with the Polish king John II Casimir Vasa.

In 1701, Friedrich Wilhelm’s son and successor Friedrich III reached the consent of Emperor Leopold I to proclaim himself a King Friedrich I “in” Prussia at Königsberg, with respect to the fact that he still held the electoral dignity of Brandenburg and the royal title was only valid in the Prussian lands outside the Empire.

The centuries-long rise of the Austrian House of Habsburg had already begun with King Rudolph’s victory at the 1278 Battle on the Marchfeld and the final obtainment of the Imperial crown by Emperor Friedrich III in 1452. His descendants Maximilian I and Philipp the Fair by marriage gained the inheritance of the Burgundian dukes and the Spanish Crown of Castile (tu felix Austria nube), and under Emperor Charles V, the Habsburg realm evolved to a European great power.

Friedrich II of Prussia and Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor meet at Neisse on August 25, 1769

In 1526 his brother Ferdinand I inherited the Lands of the Bohemian Crown as well as the Kingdom of Hungary outside the borders of the Empire, laying the foundation of the Central European Habsburg monarchy. From the 15th to the 18th century, all Holy Roman Emperors were Austrian archdukes of the Habsburg dynasty, who also held the Bohemian and Hungarian royal dignity.

After the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Habsburgs had to accept the 1555 Peace of Augsburg and failed to strengthen their Imperial authority in the disastrous Thirty Years’ War. Upon the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, Austria had to deal with the rising Brandenburg-Prussian power in the north, that replaced the Electorate of Saxony as the leading Protestant estate.

The efforts made by the “Great Elector” and the “Soldier-king” Friedrich Wilhelm I had created a progressive state with a highly effective Prussian Army that, sooner or later, had to collide with the Habsburg claims to power.

History

The rivalry is largely held to have begun when upon the death of the Habsburg Emperor Charles VI in 1740, King Friedrich II the Great of Prussia launched an invasion of Austrian-controlled Silesia, starting the First Silesian War (of three Silesian Wars to come) against Maria Theresa who had inherited the Habsburg royal lands as Queen of Hungry, Bohemia and Croatia as well as the Archduchy of Austria.

Friedrich II had broken his promise to acknowledge the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and the indivisibility of the Habsburg territories, whereby he sparked off the pan–European War of the Austrian Succession. He decisively defeated the Austrian troops at the 1742 Battle of Chotusitz, whereafter Maria Theresa, by the Treaties of Breslau and Berlin, had to cede the bulk of the Silesian lands to Prussia.

Friedrich II receives homage from the Silesian estates, wall painting by Wilhelm Camphausen, 1882

At the time, Austria still claimed the mantle of the Empire and was the chief force of the disunited German states. Until 1745, Maria Theresa was able to regain the Imperial Authority from her Wittelsbach rival Emperor Charles VII, her husband. Franz of Lorraine had been elected Emperor in 1742, by occupying his Bavarian lands, but, despite her Quadruple Alliance with Great Britain, the Dutch Republic and Saxony, she failed to recapture Silesia.

The Second Silesian War started with Friedrich II’s invasion into Bohemia in 1744 and after the Prussian victory at the 1745 Battle of Kesselsdorf, by the Treaty of Dresden the status quo ante bellum was confirmed: King Friedrich II of Prussia kept Silesia but finally acknowledged the accession of Maria Theresa’s husband, Emperor Franz I. The terms were again confirmed by the final Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748.

Empress Maria Theresa, still chafing under the loss of the most beautiful gem of my crown, took the opportunity of the breathing space to implement several civil and military reforms within the Austrian lands, like the establishment of the Theresian Military Academy at Wiener Neustadt in 1751.

Her capable state chancellor, Prince Wenzel Anton of Kaunitz, succeeded in the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756, allying with the former Habsburg nemesis France under King Louis XV in order to isolate Prussia.

Friedrich II, however, had completed the “stately quadrille” by the conclusion of the Treaty of Westminster with Great Britain. He again took action by a preemptive war, invading Saxony and opening a Third Silesian War (and the wider Seven Years’ War).

Nevertheless, the conquest of Prague failed and moreover, the king had to deal with Russian forces attacking East Prussia while Austrian troops entered Silesia. His situation worsened, when Austrian and Russian forces united to inflict a crushing defeat on him at the 1759 Battle of Kunersdorf.

Friedrich II, on the brink, was saved by the discord among the victors in the “Miracle of the House of Brandenburg”, when Empress Elizabeth of Russia died on January 5, 1762 and her successor Emperor Peter III, a great admirer of the Prussian king, concluded peace with Prussia.

By the 1763 Treaty of Hubertusburg, Austria, for the third time, had to acknowledge the Prussian annexations. The usurper kingdom had prevailed against the European great powers and would play a vital future role in the “Concert of Europe”.

They two states would join forces against Napoleon which I will cover in my next section on the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.

September 25, 1744: Birth of King Friedrich Wilhelm II of Prussia

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Frederick II of Prussia, Frederick the Great, Frederick William II of Prussia, Frederick William III of Prussia, French Revolution, Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, Mistresses, Morganatic Marriages

Friedrich Wilhelm II (September 25, 1744 – November 16, 1797) was King of Prussia from 1786 until his death. He was in personal union as the Prince-Elector of Brandenburg and (via the Orange-Nassau inheritance of his grandfather) was the sovereign P rince of the Canton of Neuchâtel. Pleasure-loving and indolent, he is seen as the antithesis to his predecessor, Friedrich the Great. (Friedrich II).

Under the reign of Friedrich WilhelmII, Prussia was weakened internally and externally, as he failed to deal adequately with the challenges to the existing order posed by the French Revolution. His religious policies were directed against the Enlightenment and aimed at restoring a traditional Protestantism. However, he was a patron of the arts and responsible for the construction of some notable buildings, among them the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin.

Early life

Friedrich Wilhelm was born in Berlin, the son of Prince August Wilhelm of Prussia (the second son of King Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia) and Duchess Luise of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. His mother’s elder sister, Elisabeth, was the wife of August Wilhelm’s brother, King Friedrich II.

Friedrich Wilhelm became heir-presumptive to the throne of Prussia on his father’s death in 1758, since Friedrich II had no children. The boy was of an easy-going and pleasure-loving disposition, averse to sustained effort of any kind, and sensual by nature.

His marriage with his first cousin Princess Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, daughter of Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and his wife Philippine Charlotte, (daughter of King Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia) that was contracted on July 14, 1765 in Charlottenburg, was dissolved in 1769.

Friedrich Wilhelm then married Frederica Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt, daughter of Ludwig IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt and Countess Palatine Caroline of Zweibrücken on July 14, 1769 also in Charlottenburg. Although he had seven children by his second wife, he had an ongoing relationship with his mistress, Wilhelmine Enke (created Countess Wilhelmine von Lichtenau in 1796), a woman of strong intellect and much ambition, and had five children by her—the first when she was still in her teens.

Friedrich Wilhelm, before the corpulence of his middle age, was a man of singularly handsome presence, not without mental qualities of a high order; he was devoted to the arts – Boccherini, Mozart and the young Beethoven enjoyed his patronage, and his private orchestra had a Europe-wide reputation. He also was a talented cellist.

However, an artistic temperament was hardly what was required of a king of Prussia on the eve of the French Revolution, and Friedrich II the Great, who had employed him in various services (notably in an abortive confidential mission to the court of Russia in 1780), openly expressed his misgivings as to the character of the prince and his surroundings. For his part, Friedrich Wilhelm, who had never been properly introduced to diplomacy and the business of rulership, resented his uncle for not taking him seriously.

Reign

The misgivings of Friedrich II appear justified in retrospect. Friedrich Wilhelm II’s accession to the throne (August 17, 1786) was, indeed, followed by a series of measures for lightening the burdens of the people, reforming the oppressive French system of tax-collecting introduced by Friedrich II, and encouraging trade by the diminution of customs dues and the making of roads and canals.

This gave the new king much popularity with the masses; the educated classes were pleased by Friedrich Wilhelm II’s reversal of his uncle’s preference for the French language and the promotion of the German language, with the admission of German writers to the Prussian Academy, and by the active encouragement given to schools and universities. Friedrich Wilhelm II also terminated his predecessor’s state monopolies for coffee and tobacco and the sugar monopoly. Under his reign the codification known as Allgemeines Preußisches Landrecht, initiated by Friedrich II, continued and was completed in 1794.

Mysticism and religious policies

In 1781 Friedrich Wilhelm II, then The Prince of Prussia, inclined to mysticism, had joined the Rosicrucians, and had fallen under the influence of Johann Christoph von Wöllner and Johann Rudolf von Bischoffswerder. On August 26, 1786 Wöllner was appointed privy councillor for finance (Geheimer Oberfinanzrath), and on October 2, 1786 was ennobled. Though not in name, he in fact became prime minister; in all internal affairs it was he who decided; and the fiscal and economic reforms of the new reign were the application of his theories.

Bischoffswerder, too, still a simple major, was called into the king’s counsels; by 1789 he was already an adjutant-general. The opposition to Wöllner was, indeed, at the outset strong enough to prevent his being entrusted with the department of religion; but this too in time was overcome, and on July 3, 1788 he was appointed active privy councillor of state and of justice and head of the spiritual department for Lutheran and Catholic affairs. From this position Wöllner pursued long lasting reforms concerning religion in the Prussian state.

The king proved eager to aid Wöllner’s crusade. On July 9, 1788 a religious edict was issued forbidding Evangelical ministers from teaching anything not contained in the letter of their official books, proclaimed the necessity of protecting the Christian religion against the “enlighteners” (Aufklärer), and placed educational establishments under the supervision of the orthodox clergy.

On December 18, 1788 a new censorship law was issued to secure the orthodoxy of all published books. This forced major Berlin journals like Christoph Friedrich Nicolai’s Allgemeine Deutsche Bibliothek and Johann Erich Biester’s Berliner Monatsschrift to publish only outside the Prussian borders. Moreover, people like Immanuel Kant were forbidden to speak in public on the topic of religion.

Finally, in 1791, a Protestant commission was established at Berlin (Immediate-Examinationscommission) to watch over all ecclesiastical and scholastic appointments. Although Wöllner’s religious edict had many critics, it was an important measure that, in fact, proved an important stabilizing factor for the Prussian state. Aimed at protecting the multi-confessional rights enshrined in the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, the provisions of Wöllner’s edict were intended to safeguard against religious strife by imposing a system of state sponsored limits.

The edict was also a notable step forward regarding the rights of Jews, Mennonites, and Herrnhut brethren, who now received full state protection. Given the confessional divides within Prussian society, primarily between Calvinists and Lutherans but increasingly Catholics as well, such a policy was important for maintaining a stable civil society.
In his zeal for establishing Prussia as a paragon of stable Christian statehood, Friedrich Wilhelm II outstripped his minister; he even blamed Wöllner’s “idleness and vanity” for the inevitable failure of the attempt to regulate opinion from above, and in 1794 deprived him of one of his secular offices in order that he might have more time “to devote himself to the things of God”; in edict after edict the king continued to the end of his reign to make regulations “in order to maintain in his states a true and active Christianity, as the path to genuine fear of God”.

Foreign policies

The attitude of Friedrich Wilhelm II towards the army and foreign policy proved fateful for Prussia. The army was the very foundation of the Prussian state, as both Friedrich Wilhelm II and Friedrich II the Great had fully realised. The army had been their first care, and its efficiency had been maintained by their constant personal supervision.

Friedrich Wilhelm II had no taste for military matters and put his authority as “Warlord” (Kriegsherr) into commission under a supreme college of war (Oberkriegs-Collegium) under the Duke of Brunswick and General Wichard Joachim Heinrich von Möllendorf. It was the beginning of the process that ended in 1806 at the disastrous Battle of Jena. Although the Prussian army reached its highest peacetime level of manpower under Friedrich Wilhelm II (189,000 infantry and 48,000 cavalry), under his reign the Prussian state treasury incurred a substantial debt, and the quality of the troops’ training deteriorated.

Under the circumstances, Friedrich Wilhelm II’s interventions in European affairs were of little benefit to Prussia. The Dutch campaign of 1787, entered into for purely family reasons, was indeed successful, but Prussia received not even the cost of her intervention. An attempt to intervene in the war of Russia and Austria against the Ottoman Empire failed to achieve its objective; Prussia did not succeed in obtaining any concessions of territory, and the dismissal of minister Hertzberg (July 5, 1791) marked the final abandonment of the anti-Austrian tradition of Friedrich II the Great.

Meanwhile, the French Revolution alarmed the ruling monarchs of Europe, and in August 1791 Friedrich Wilhelm II at the meeting at Pillnitz Castle, agreed with Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II to join in supporting the cause of King Louis XVI of France. However the king’s character and the confusion of the Prussian finances could not sustain effective action in this regard. A formal alliance was indeed signed on February 7, 1792, and Friedrich Wilhelm II took part personally in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, but the king was hampered by want of funds, and his counsels were distracted by the affairs of a deteriorating Poland, which promised a richer booty than was likely to be gained by the anti-revolutionary crusade into France.

A subsidy treaty with the sea powers (Great Britain and the Netherlands, signed at The Hague, April 19, 1794) filled Prussia’s coffers, but at the cost of a promise to supply 64,000 land troops to the coalition. The insurrection in Poland that followed the partition of 1793, and the threat of unilateral intervention by Russia, drove Friedrich Wilhelm II into the separate Treaty of Basel with the French Republic (April 5, 1795), which was regarded by the other great monarchies as a betrayal, and left Prussia morally isolated in the struggle between the monarchical principle and the new republican creed of the Revolution.

Although the land area of the Prussian state reached a new peak under his rule after the third partition of Poland in 1795, the new territories included parts of Poland such as Warsaw that had virtually no German population, severely straining administrative resources due to various pro-Polish revolts; it also removed the last remaining buffer state between Prussia and Russia.

Personal life and patronage of the arts

Friedrich Wilhelm II’s first marriage, to Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick (his first cousin) had ended after four years during which both spouses had been unfaithful. Their uncle, Friedrich II, granted a divorce reluctantly, as he was more fond of Elisabeth than of Friedrich Wilhelm. His second marriage lasted until his death, but he continued his relationship with Wilhelmine Enke. In 1794–1797 he had a castle built for her on the Pfaueninsel.

Moreover, he was involved in two more (bigamist) morganatic marriages: with Elisabeth Amalie, Gräfin von Voß, Gräfin von Ingenheim in 1787 and (after her death in 1789) with Sophie Juliane Gräfin von Dönhoff. He had another seven children with those two women, which explains why his people also called him der Vielgeliebte (“the much loved”) and der dicke Lüderjahn (“the fat scallywag”).

His favourite son—with Wilhelmine Enke—was Graf Alexander von der Mark. His daughter from Sophie Juliane, Countess Julie of Brandenburg (January 14, 1793 – January 29, 1848, Vienna), married to Friedrich Ferdinand, Duke of Anhalt-Köthen.

Other buildings constructed under his reign were the Marmorpalais in Potsdam and the world-famous Brandenburger Tor in Berlin.

On November 16, 1797, Friedrich Wilhelm II died in Potsdam. He was succeeded by his son, Friedrich Wilhelm III, who had resented his father’s lifestyle and acted swiftly to deal with what he considered the immoral state of the court. Friedrich Wilhelm II is buried in the Berliner Dom.

July 11, 1657: Birth of Friedrich I of Prussia and the Rise of Royal Prussia.

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Augustus II of Saxony, Emperor Leopold I, Frederick I of Prussia, Frederick III of Brandenburg, Frederick the Great, Holy Roman Empire, King in Prussia, King of Poland, The Great Elector Frederick William of Brandenburg

Friedrich I. (July 11, 1657 – February 25, 1713), of the Hohenzollern dynasty, was (as Friedrich III) Prince-Elector of Brandenburg (1688–1713) and Duke of Prussia in personal union (Brandenburg-Prussia). The latter function he upgraded to royalty, becoming the first King in Prussia (1701–1713). From 1707 he was in personal union the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel (German: Fürstentum Neuenburg). He was also the paternal grandfather of Friedrich II the Great.

Born in Königsberg, he was the third son of Friedrich Wilhelm, the Great Elector of Brandenburg by his father’s first marriage to Louise Henriette of Orange-Nassau, eldest daughter of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange and Amalia of Solms-Braunfels. His maternal cousin was King William III of England. Upon the death of his father on April 29, 1688, Friedrich became Elector Friedrich III of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia. Right after ascending the throne Friedrich founded a new city southerly adjacent to Dorotheenstadt and named it after himself, the Friedrichstadt.

The Hohenzollern state was then known as Brandenburg-Prussia. The family’s main possessions were the Margraviate of Brandenburg within the Holy Roman Empire and the Duchy of Prussia outside of the Empire, ruled as a personal union. Originally the dukes of Prussia held the fief as vassals of the King of Poland, until the Treaties of Labiau (1656) and Bromberg (1657), with which Friedrich Wilhelm, the Great Elector, claimed full sovereignty from the Polish Crown. Originally the province of Royal Prussia was part of the Kingdom of Poland, the Kings of Poland titled themselves Kings of Prussia until 1742.

Although Friedrich was the Margrave and Prince-Elector of Brandenburg and the Duke of Prussia, Friedrich desired the more prestigious title of king. However, according to Germanic law at that time, no kingdoms could exist within the Holy Roman Empire, with the exception of the Kingdom of Bohemia which was in personal union with the Holy Roman Emperor.

In the Crown Treaty of November 16, 1700, Friedrich persuaded Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, to allow Prussia to be elevated to a kingdom. This agreement was ostensibly given in exchange for an alliance against King Louis XIV of France and Navarre in the War of the Spanish Succession and the provision of 8,000 Prussian troops to Leopold’s service.

Friedrich argued that Prussia had never been part of the Holy Roman Empire, and he ruled over it with full sovereignty. Therefore, he said, there was no legal or political barrier to letting him rule it as a kingdom.

Friedrich III of Brandenburg crowned himself on January 18, 1701 in Königsberg, becoming King Friedrich I in Prussia. Although he did this with the Emperor’s consent, and also with formal acknowledgement from Augustus II the Strong, Elector of Saxony, who also held the title of King of Poland, the Polish-Lithuanian Diet (Sejm) raised objections, and viewed the coronation as illegal.

In fact, according to the terms of the Treaty of Wehlau and Bromberg, the House of Hohenzollern’s sovereignty over the Duchy of Prussia was not absolute but contingent on the continuation of the male line (in the absence of which the duchy would revert to the Polish crown). Therefore, out of deference to the region’s historic ties to the Polish crown, Friedrich made the symbolic concession of calling himself “King in Prussia” instead of “King of Prussia”.

His royalty was, in any case, limited to Prussia and did not reduce the rights of the Emperor in the portions of his domains that were still part of the Holy Roman Empire. In other words, while he was a king in Prussia, he was still only an elector under the suzerainty of the Holy Roman Emperor in Brandenburg. Legally, the Hohenzollern state was still a personal union between Brandenburg and Prussia.

The title “King in Prussia” reflected that Friedrich was only sovereign over his former duchy. In Brandenburg and the other Hohenzollern domains within the borders of the empire, he was legally still an elector under the ultimate overlordship of the emperor.

However, this was legal fiction. By this time the emperor’s authority had become purely nominal. The rulers of the empire’s member states acted largely as the rulers of sovereign states, and only acknowledged the emperor’s suzerainty in a formal way. Hence, even though Brandenburg was still legally part of the empire and ruled in personal union with Prussia, Brandenburg soon became to be treated as a de facto part of Prussia.

Throughout the 18th century, the Hohenzollerns increased their power. They were victorious over the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy in the three Silesian Wars, greatly increasing their power through the acquisition of Silesia. King Friedrich II adopted the title King of Prussia in 1772, the same year he annexed most of Royal Prussia in the First Partition of Poland.

The kings of Prussia continued to be Electors of Brandenburg until the empire’s dissolution in 1806. Brandenburg was then made a Prussian province, and Berlin officially became the kingdom’s capital. In 1871 the Hohenzollerns became German Emperors of the new unified German Empire which lasted until the end of World War I.

February 12, 1771: Accession of Gustav III as King of Sweden.

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Adolf Frederick of Sweden, Assassination, Catherine the Great, Frederick the Great, King Carl XII of Sweden, King Gustav III of Sweden

Gustav III (January  24, 1746 – March 29, 1792) was King of Sweden from 1771 until his assassination in 1792. He was the eldest son of Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden and Queen Louise Ulrika (a sister of King Friedrich II the Great of Prussia), and a first cousin of Empress Catherine II the Great of Russia by reason of their common descent from Christian August of Holstein-Gottorp, Prince of Eutin, and his wife Albertina Frederica of Baden-Durlach.

Gustav was a vocal opponent of what he saw as the abuse of political privileges seized by the nobility since the death of King Carl XII. Seizing power from the government in a coup d’état, called the Swedish Revolution, in 1772 that ended the Age of Liberty, he initiated a campaign to restore a measure of Royal autocracy, which was completed by the Union and Security Act of 1789, which swept away most of the powers exercised by the Swedish Riksdag (parliament) during the Age of Liberty, but at the same time it opened up the government for all citizens, thereby breaking the privileges of the nobility.

A bulwark of enlightened despotism, Gustav spent considerable public funds on cultural ventures, which were controversial among his critics, as well as military attempts to seize Norway with Russian aid, then a series of attempts to re-capture the Swedish Baltic dominions lost during the Great Northern War through the failed war with Russia. Nonetheless, his successful leadership in the Battle of Svensksund averted a complete military defeat and signified that Swedish military might was to be countenanced.

An admirer of Voltaire, Gustav legalized Catholic and Jewish presence in Sweden, and enacted wide-ranging reforms aimed at economic liberalism, social reform and the restriction, in many cases, of torture and capital punishment. The much-praised Freedom of the Press Act of 1766 was severely curtailed, however, by amendments in 1774 and 1792, effectively extinguishing independent media.

Following the uprising against the French monarchy in 1789, Gustav pursued an alliance of princes aimed at crushing the insurrection and re-instating his French counterpart, King Louis XVI, offering Swedish military assistance as well as his leadership. In 1792 he was mortally wounded by a gunshot in the lower back during a masquerade ball as part of an aristocratic-parliamentary coup attempt, but managed to assume command and quell the uprising before succumbing to sepsis 13 days later, a period during which he received apologies from many of his political enemies. Gustav’s immense powers were placed in the hands of a regency under his brother Prince Carl and Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm until his son and successor Gustav IV Adolf reached adulthood in 1796. The Gustavian autocracy thus survived until 1809, when his son was ousted in another coup d’état, which definitively established parliament as the dominant political power.

A patron of the arts and benefactor of arts and literature, Gustav founded the Swedish Academy, created a national costume and had the Royal Swedish Opera built. In 1772 he founded the Royal Order of Vasa to acknowledge and reward those Swedes who had contributed to advances in the fields of agriculture, mining and commerce.

In 1777, Gustav III was the first formally neutral head of state in the world to recognize the United States during its war for independence from Great Britain. Swedish military forces were engaged by the thousands on the side of the colonists, largely through the French expedition force. Through the acquisition of Saint Barthélemy in 1784, Gustav enabled the restoration, if symbolic, of Swedish overseas colonies in America, as well as great personal profits from the transatlantic slave trade.

July 9, 1762: in a Palace Coup, Catherine the Great becomes the Ruling Empress of Russia.

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Catherine the Great, Charles Peter of Holstein-Gottorp, Emperor Peter III of Russia, Empress Catherine II of Russia, Frederick the Great, King Frederick II of Prussia, Palace Coup, Princess Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg

Catherine II (May 2, 1729 – November 17, 1796), most commonly known as Catherine the Great, was Empress of Russia from 1762 until 1796—the country’s longest-ruling female leader. From 1793 on she also became Lady of Jever. She came to power following a coup d’état that she organised, resulting in her husband, Peter III, being overthrown. Under her reign, Russia was revitalised; it grew larger and stronger, and was recognised as one of the great powers of Europe and Asia.

Charles Peter Ulrich of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp and Princess Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg. Future Peter III and Catherine II, Emperor and Empress of Russia.

Catherine was born in Alt-Stettin, Pomerania, Kingdom of Prussia (now Szczecin, Poland) as Princess Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg. She was the daughter of Christian-August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst and Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp, sister of King Adolf-Frederik of Sweden, daughter of Prince Christian-August of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp, Prince of Eutin and Princess Albertina Frederica of Baden-Durlach.

Christian-August of Anhalt-Zerbst belonged to the ruling German family of Anhalt but held the rank of a Prussian general in his capacity as governor of the city of Stettin. Two of Catherine’s first cousins became Kings of Sweden: Gustaf III and Carl XIII. In accordance with the custom then prevailing in the ruling dynasties of Germany, she received her education chiefly from a French governess and from tutors. Catherine was regarded as a tomboy and was known by the nickname Fike.

The choice of Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst as wife of her second cousin, the prospective Emperor, Charles-Peter of Holstein-Gottorp, resulted from some amount of diplomatic management in which Count Lestocq, Peter’s aunt and ruling Russian Empress Elizabeth, and Friedrich II of Prussia took part.

Lestocq and Friedrich wanted to strengthen the friendship between Prussia and Russia to weaken Austria’s influence and ruin the Russian chancellor Bestuzhev, on whom Empress Elizabeth relied, and who acted as a known partisan of Russo-Austrian co-operation.

Catherine first met Charles-Peter at the age of 10. Based on her writings, she found Charles-Peter detestable upon meeting him. She disliked his pale complexion and his fondness for alcohol at such a young age. Charles-Peter also still played with toy soldiers. Catherine later wrote that she stayed at one end of the castle, and Charles-Peter at the other.

Princess Sophie’s father, a devout German Lutheran, opposed his daughter’s conversion to Eastern Orthodoxy. Despite his objection, however, on June 28, 1744, the Russian Orthodox Church received Princess Sophie as a member with the new name Catherine (Yekaterina or Ekaterina) and the (artificial) patronymic Алексеевна (Alekseyevna, daughter of Aleksey).

On the following day, the formal betrothal took place. The long-planned dynastic marriage finally occurred on August 21, 1745 in Saint Petersburg. Sophie had turned 16; her father did not travel to Russia for the wedding. The bridegroom, known then as Charles-Peter von Holstein-Gottorp, had become Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (located in the north-west of present-day Germany near the border with Denmark) in 1739. The newlyweds settled in the palace of Oranienbaum, which remained the residence of the “young court” for many years to come.

After the death of the Empress Elizabeth on January 5, 1762, Charles-Peter succeeded to the throne as Emperor Peter III, and Catherine became empress consort. The imperial couple moved into the new Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg.

The Emperor’s eccentricities and policies, including a great admiration for the Prussian king, Friedrich II, alienated the same groups that Catherine had cultivated. Russia and Prussia had fought each other during the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), and Russian troops had occupied Berlin in 1761.

Peter, however, supported Friedrich II, eroding much of his support among the nobility. Peter ceased Russian operations against Prussia, and Frederick suggested the partition of Polish territories with Russia. Peter also intervened in a dispute between his Duchy of Holstein and Denmark over the province of Schleswig (see Count Johann Hartwig Ernst von Bernstorff). As Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, Peter planned war against Denmark, Russia’s traditional ally against Sweden.

In July 1762, barely six months after becoming emperor, Peter lingered in Oranienbaum with his Holstein-born courtiers and relatives, while his wife lived in another palace nearby. On the night of July 8, Catherine was given the news that one of her co-conspirators had been arrested by her estranged husband and that all they had been planning must take place at once.

The next day, she left the palace and departed for the Ismailovsky regiment, where she delivered a speech asking the soldiers to protect her from her husband. Catherine then left with the regiment to go to the Semenovsky Barracks, where the clergy was waiting to ordain her as the sole occupant of the Russian throne.

She had her husband arrested, and forced him to sign a document of abdication, leaving no one to dispute her accession to the throne. On July 17, 1762—eight days after the coup that amazed the outside world and just six months after his accession to the throne—Peter III died at Ropsha, possibly at the hands of Alexei Orlov (younger brother to Grigory Orlov, then a court favourite and a participant in the coup). Peter supposedly was assassinated, but it is unknown how he died. The official cause, after an autopsy, was a severe attack of hemorrhoidal colic and an apoplexy stroke.

At the time of Peter III’s overthrow, other potential rivals for the throne included Ivan VI (1740–1764), who had been confined at Schlüsselburg in Lake Ladoga from the age of six months, and was thought to be insane. Ivan VI was assassinated during an attempt to free him as part of a failed coup: Like Empress Elizabeth before her, Catherine had given strict instructions that Ivan was to be killed in the event of any such attempt. Yelizaveta Alekseyevna Tarakanova (1753–1775) was another potential rival.

Although Catherine did not descend from the Romanov dynasty, her ancestors included members of the Rurik dynasty, which preceded the Romanovs. She succeeded her husband as Empress Regnant, following the precedent established when Catherine I succeeded her husband Peter the Great in 1725.

Historians debate Catherine’s technical status, whether as a regent or as a usurper, tolerable only during the minority of her son, Grand Duke Paul. In the 1770s, a group of nobles connected with Paul, including Nikita Panin, considered a new coup to depose Catherine and transfer the crown to Paul, whose power they envisaged restricting in a kind of constitutional monarchy. Nothing came of this, however, and Catherine reigned until her death.

June 28, 1757: Death of Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, Queen Consort in Prussia. Part V Conclusion.

Tags

Augustus II of Poland, Augustus III of Poland, Elisabeth-Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern, Frederick II of Prussia, Frederick the Great, Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia, Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, War of the Polish Succession

Part V

Sophia-Dorothea favored the French side in the War of the Polish Succession of 1733-36. The War of the Polish Succession was a major European conflict sparked by a Polish civil war over the succession to Augustus II of Poland, which the other European powers widened in pursuit of their own national interests. France and Spain, the two Bourbon powers, attempted to test the power of the Austrian Habsburgs in western Europe, as did the Kingdom of Prussia, whilst Saxony and Russia mobilized to support the eventual Polish victor. The fighting in Poland resulted in the accession of Augustus III, who in addition to Russia and Saxony, was politically supported by the Habsburgs.

Sophia-Dorothea, Queen in Prussia.

Sophia-Dorothea disliked the king’s participation in the war on the Austrian side. She openly declared her view when the king swore loyalty to Austria: “I shall live to make you, who are so incredulous, believe, and prove to you how you are deceived.”

During the last years of the king’s life, he was afflicted with fits of illnesses which often forced him to use a wheelchair, and Sophia-Dorothea was ordered to attend to him continuously. On the day of his death, Friedrich-Wilhelm ordered himself to be taken to the queen’s apartment and told her:

“Rise, I have but a few hours to live, and I would at least have the satisfaction of dying in your arms.”

Queen Dowager

On May 31, 1740, Friedrich-Wilhelm I died and was succeeded by her son, Friedrich II (the Great).

Sophia-Dorothea had a very good relationship with her son the king. When she addressed him as “Your Majesty” after the funeral of his father, he interrupted her and told her: “Always call me your son, that title is dearer to me than the royal dignity.” Friedrich was known for his devotion to her, expressed his gratitude for her having raised him and never blamed her for his traumatic childhood, which he instead blamed on his father, and never allowed anyone to criticize her.

Friedrich II, King of Prussia

Sophia-Dorothea lost no importance as a queen dowager: wary of the great respect the king afforded his mother and his neglect of his wife, the foreign envoys and other supplicants considered attending the audience chamber and receptions as of the queen dowager as even more important than that of the queen. Until her death, he honored her as the first lady of his court and placed her before that of his wife, the queen. It was to his mother’s chamber the king paid the first visit on his return from campaigns, summoning the queen to meet him there; he regularly invited his mother to his personal residence at Potsdam, where his wife was never invited, and while he seldom visited his wife, he regularly attended his mother at Monbijou, where he took off his hat and remained standing until she gave him permission to sit.

Sophia-Dorothea presided at the wedding of her son Prince August-Wilhelm in 1742, when he married Luise of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (1722-1780) was daughter of Ferdinand-Albrecht II, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and his wife Duchess Antoinette of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. Sophia-Dorothea also presided over the wedding of her daughter Princess Louisa-Ulrika to King Adolf-Frederik of Sweden in 1744.

Elisabeth-Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern, Queen Consort of Prussia

The relationship between Sophia-Dorothea and her daughter-in-law queen Elisabeth-Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern was not good during the first years of her son’s reign, as she resented her daughter-in-law’s precedence in rank, though her son assured it to be merely formal, but their relationship improved during the last years of her life. Sophia-Dorothea saw her son for the last time after his first campaign in January 1757 during the Seven Years’ War. At that point she was well, but soon after his departure, her health rapidly declined, and she died on June 28, 1757, aged 70.

June 28, 1757: Death of Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, Queen Consort in Prussia. Part IV.

Tags

Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel., Frederick Louis Prince of Wales, Frederick the Great, Friedrich II of Prussia, Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia, King George II of Great Britain, Philippine-Charlotte of Prussia, Prince Friedrich of Bayreuth, Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, Wilhelmine of Prussia

Part IV

Sophia-Dorothea spent many days talking to her eldest son, Crown Prince Friedrich, in the library, and was informed of his plans to escape from his father’s custody. In August 1730, during a tour he made with his father through the provinces, Crown Prince Friedrich made an unsuccessful attempt to escape from Prussia, and was brought back a prisoner. The king informed the queen of the event through Sophie de Kamecke before their arrival.

Sophia-Dorothea, Queen Consort in Prussia

There were compromising letters by the queen and princess Wilhelmine in Friedrich’s portefeuille, which was forwarded to them by a friend after the arrest of Friedrich’s accomplice Katte. They burned the letters and replaced them with fabricated and uncompromising ones. However, “as there were near fifteen hundred of the originals, although we worked very hard, not more than six hundred or seven hundred could be completed in the time”.

The portefeuille was also filled with ornamental articles. When the portefeuille was later opened, Friedrich did not recognize its content. Grumbkow immediately suspected what had transpired and stated: “These cursed women have outwitted us!”

When the king returned, he told the queen that her son was dead. She replied: “What! Have you murdered your son?” When given the reply: “He was not my son, he was only a miserable deserter,” she became hysterical and screamed repeatedly: “Mon Dieu, mon fils! mon Dieu, mon fils!” The king then started to beat Wilhelmine and would possibly have killed her. Her siblings and ladies-in-waiting intervened.

Friedrich’s accomplice Katte arrived as a prisoner, so the king beat him instead. When Friedrich was imprisoned at the fortress in Küstrin, Grumbkow acted as mediator between Friedrich and his parents, managing to reconcile them.
The imprisonment was followed by continuous conflict between the king and the queen about the marriage of princess Wilhelmine. While the king pressed for a marriage to the Margrave of Schwedt or the Prince of Weissenfels, the queen exchanged secret messages with her daughter and urged her not to accept any other groom than the Prince of Wales.

Crown Prince Friedrich of Prussia

This conflict caused the king to threaten to beat the queen and have Mademoiselle Sonsfeld publicly whipped. Finally, Wilhelmine was formally offered the choice between the Margrave of Schwedt, the Duke of Weissenfels, or the Prince of Bayreuth. She chose to marry the latter (as she had not seen him but had seen and disliked the other two), on condition that her father free her brother.

Her decision was made against the will of her mother, who threatened to disown her for what she considered to be her daughter’s lack of courage, and ordered her not to speak to her future groom when he arrived. The king was furious at the cold demeanor of the queen during the following visit of the Prince of Bayreuth.

After the betrothal of Wilhelmine and the Prince of Bayreuth, a message arrived in which George II of Great Britain consented to Wilhelmine marrying the Prince of Wales without her brother marrying his daughter Amelia. This message convinced the queen that a Prussian-British marriage alliance was possible. She therefore made a point of harassing the Prince of Bayreuth to stop the wedding. On the day of the wedding (November 20, 1731), Sophia-Dorothea tried to delay the ceremony by disarranging her daughter’s hair every time it had been dressed, saying she was not satisfied with the effect, in the hope that a British courier might arrive in time to stop the ceremony.

King Friedrich-Wilhelm I in Prussia

When Crown Prince Friedrich was liberated after his sister’s wedding, Sophia-Dorothea resumed negotiations with Great Britain to marry him to Princess Amelia, and her next daughter, Philippine-Charlotte, to Frederick-Louis, Prince of Wales, which would complete her life project of a Prussian-British marriage alliance.

These plans was crushed in 1733, when King Friedrich-Wilhelm instead announced a marriage alliance with Brunswick by marrying Friedrich to Elisabeth-Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern and Philippine-Charlotte to Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel.

But Sophia-Dorothea continued to pursue a Prussian-British marriage alliance, accomplishing a “reconciliation between the houses of England and Prussia negotiated by the Queen”, this time by the marriage of the Prince of Wales to her third daughter Louisa-Ulrika.

This plan was crushed upon the marriage of the Prince of Wales in 1736 to Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, Louisa-Ulrika went on to become the Queen of Sweden when she married King Adolf-Fredrik of Sweden on July 17, 1744.

June 28, 1757: Death of Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, Queen Consort in Prussia. Part I.

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Berlin, Ernst August of Hanover, Frederick the Great, Friedrich-Wilhelm I in Prussia, George I of Great Britain, George III of Great Britain, King in Prussia, Queen Consort, Sophia Dorothea of Hanover

Sophia-Dorothea of Hanover (March 26, 1687 – June 28, 1757) was a Queen Consort in Prussia as spouse of King Friedrich-Wilhelm I. She was the sister of George II, King of Great Britain, and the mother of Friedrich II, King of Prussia.

Sophia-Dorothea of Hanover

Sophia Dorothea was born in Hanover. She was the only daughter of Georg-Ludwig of Hanover, later King George I of Great Britain, and his wife, Sophia-Dorothea of Brunswick-Celle, the only child of Georg-Wilhelm, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg by his long-term mistress, Eleonore Desmier d’Olbreuse (1639–1722), Countess of Williamsburg, a Huguenot lady, the daughter of Alexander II Desmier, Marquess of Olbreuse. Georg-Wilhelm eventually married Eleonore officially in 1676 (they had been married morganatically previously).

Sophia-Dorothea was detested by her elder brother, King George II of Great Britain.

After the divorce and imprisonment of her mother, she was raised in Hanover under the supervision of her paternal grandmother, Sophia of Hanover, and educated by her Huguenot teacher Madame de Sacetot.

Marriage

Sophia-Dorothea married her cousin, Crown Prince Friedrich-Wilhelm of Prussia, heir apparent to the Prussian throne, on November 28, 1706. Crown Prince Friedrich-Wilhelm of Prussia was the son of King Friedrich I in Prussia and Princess Sophia-Charlotte of Hanover, the only daughter of Elector Ernst-August of Hanover and his wife Sophia of the Palatinate. Her eldest brother Elector Georg-Ludwig succeeded to the British throne in 1714 as King George I.

They had met as children when Friedrich-Wilhelm had spent some time in Hanover under the care of their grandmother, Sophia of Hanover, and though Sophia-Dorothea disliked him, Friedrich-Wilhelm had reportedly felt an attraction to her early on.

Friedrich-Wilhelm, King in Prussia

When a marriage was to be arranged for Friedrich-Wilhelm, he was given three alternatives: Princess Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden, Princess Amalia of Nassau-Dietz, or Sophia-Dorothea of Hanover. The Swedish match was preferred by his father, King Friedrich I, who wished to form a matrimonial alliance with Sweden, and thus the official Finck was sent to Stockholm under the pretext of an adjustment of the disputes regarding Pomerania, but in reality to observe the princess before issuing formal negotiations: Friedrich-Wilhelm, however, preferred Sophia Dorothea and successfully tasked Finck with making such a deterring report of Ulrika Eleonora to his father that he would encounter less opposition when he informed his father of his choice.

A marriage alliance between Prussia and Hanover was regarded as a noncontroversial choice by both courts and the negotiations were swiftly conducted. In order for Sophia Dorothea to make as good an impression as possible in Berlin, her grandmother, Electress Sophia, commissioned her niece Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess of the Palatinate to procure her trousseau in Paris. Her bridal paraphernalia attracted great attention and was referred to as the greatest of any German Princess yet.

The wedding by proxy took place in Hanover on November 28, 1706, and she arrived in Berlin on November 27, where she was welcomed by her groom and his family outside of the city gates and before making her entrance into the capital. Thereafter followed a second wedding, the stately torch-dance, and six weeks of banquets and balls.

June 12, 1758: Death of Prince August-Wilhelm of Prussia

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August Wilhelm of Prussia, Battle of Kolin, Frederick II of Prussia, Frederick the Great, Frederick William I of Prussia, George I of Great Britain, King Adolphus-Frederick of Sweden, Kingdom of Prussia, Luise of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Seven Years War

August-Wilhelm of Prussia (August 9, 1722 – June 12, 1758) was Prince of Prussia and a younger brother and general of Friedrich II.

August-Wilhelm was the second surviving son of Friedrich-Wilhelm I and Sophia-Dorothea of Hanover, only daughter of Elector Georg-Ludwig of Hanover, later King George I of Great Britain, and his wife, Sophia Dorothea of Brunswick-Celle. She was detested by her elder brother, King George II of Great Britain.

August-Wilhelm of Prussia

August-Wilhelm’s older siblings included Wilhelmina, married Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, Friedrich II (King of Prussia), Friedrike-Louise, married her Hohenzollern kinsman Charles-Wilhelm-Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Louisa-Ulrika, married King Adolf-Fredrik of Sweden.

August-Wilhelm was favored by his father over Friedrich and popular at the Prussian court. When his brother Friedrich became king in 1740, August-Wilhelm became heir presumptive and moved into the Friedrich’s former residence, the Crown Prince’s Palace in Berlin. When his older sister Louisa Ulrika married the King Adolf-Fredrik of Sweden in 1744, she founded the Ordre de l’Harmonie, of which August-Wilhelm was one of the first recipients.

August-Wilhelm served his brother as a general in the War of the Austrian Succession, and distinguished himself in the Battle of Hohenfriedberg. But in the Seven Years’ War, owing to the fatal retreat of Zittau during the Battle of Kolin in 1757, he incurred the wrath of his brother the King, and withdrew from the army.

This conflict between the two brothers led to a correspondence, which was published in 1769. August-Wilhelm died suddenly in 1758 at Oranienburg, according to some of “a broken heart”, in reference to his brother Friedrich II’s harsh treatment of him for his incompetent military leadership in the Battle of Kolin. In reality, he died from a brain tumor.

August-Wilhelm of Prussia

August-Wilhelm married Luise of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel,(January 29, 1722 – January 13, 1780) was daughter of Ferdinand-Albrecht II, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and his wife Duchess Antoinette of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel.

Luise of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel’s older sister was Elisabeth-Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel-Bevern, wife of August-Wilhelm’s brother, Friedrich II the Great. She was also the sibling of the Queen of Denmark and Norway and the Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel.

Because his older brother had no children, August-Wilhelm’s oldest son inherited the throne as King Friedrich-Wilhelm II of Prussia on Friedrich II’s death.

Issue: Children of August-Wilhelm and Luise of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel.

* Friedrich-Wilhelm II of Prussia (1744–1797)
* married (1) Elisabeth-Christine of Brunswick-Lüneburg. They had one child Princess Frederica-Charlotte of Prussia (1767–1820), who married Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, the second son of George III of the United Kingdom.
* married (2) Frederika-Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt and had issue.
* Prince Heinrich of Prussia (1747–1767) died unmarried.
* Princess Wilhelmina of Prussia (1751–1820) married Willem V, Prince of Orange and had issue.
* Prince Emil of Prussia (1758–1759) died in infancy.

June 4, 1738: Birth of King George III of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

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Act of Settlement 1701, Charlotte Sophia of Mecklenburg- Strelitz, Electress Sophia of Hanover, Frederick II of Prussia, Frederick Louis Prince of Wales, Frederick the Great, George I of Great Britain, King George II of Great Britain, King George III of the United Kingdom, King George IV of the United Kingdom, King of Great Britain, King of Hanover, Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, Sophia of the Rhine (Electress Sophia)

George III (George William Frederick; June 4, 1738 – January 29, 1820) was King of Great Britain and King of Ireland from his accession on October 25, 1760 until the union of the two countries on January 1, 1801, after which he was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death in 1820. He was concurrently Duke and Prince-Elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg (“Hanover”) in the Holy Roman Empire before becoming King of Hanover on October 12, 1814. He was a monarch of the House of Hanover, but unlike his two predecessors, he was born in Great Britain, spoke English as his first language, and never visited Hanover.

George III, King of the United King of Great Britain and Ireland. King of Hanover

Family

George was born in London at Norfolk House in St James’s Square. As he was born two months prematurely and thought unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by Thomas Secker, who was both Rector of St James’s and Bishop of Oxford. One month later, he was publicly baptised at Norfolk House, again by Secker. His godparents were King Friedrich I of Sweden (for whom Lord Baltimore stood proxy), his uncle Friedrich III, Duke of Saxe-Gotha (for whom Lord Carnarvon stood proxy), and his great-aunt Sophia-Dorothea, Queen in Prussia (for whom Lady Charlotte Edwin stood proxy).

George II, King of Great Britain and Ireland.

George III was the grandson of King George II, and the eldest son of Frederick-Louis, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha.

George III’s father was Frederick-Louis, Prince of Wales, (1707-1751), was heir apparent to the British throne from 1727 until his death from a lung injury at the age of 44. He was the eldest but estranged son of King George II and Caroline of Ansbach.

Under the Act of Settlement passed by the English Parliament in 1701, Frederick-Louis was fourth in the line of succession to the British throne at birth, after his great-grandmother (Electress Sophia of Hanover) paternal grandfather (George I) and father (George II). He moved to Great Britain following the accession of his father, and was created Prince of Wales. He predeceased his father, however, and upon the latter’s death on October 25, 1760, the throne passed to Prince Frederick’s eldest son, George III.

Frederick-Louis, Prince of Wales (Father)

George III’s mother, Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg was born in Gotha to Friedrich II, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (1676–1732) and Magdalena Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst (1679–1740). Her paternal grandparents were Friedrich I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg and Magdalena-Sibylla of Saxe-Weissenfels, a daughter of August, Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels, and his wife Anna-Maria of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Magdalena-Sibylla’snpaternal grandparents were Johann-Georg I, Elector of Saxony, and Magdalene Sibylle of Prussia.

Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (Mother)

Friedrich I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, was the eldest surviving son of Ernst I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg and his cousin Elisabeth-Sophie of Saxe-Altenburg.

Princess Augusta did not speak French or English, and it was suggested that she be given lessons before the wedding, but her mother did not consider it necessary as the British royal family were from Germany (Holy Roman Empire). She arrived in Britain, speaking virtually no English, for a wedding ceremony with Frederick-Louis, Prince of Wales, which took place almost immediately, on May 8,1736, at the Chapel Royal in St James’s Palace, London.

Although he was the first British King of the House of Hanover born in England with English his native language, the ancestry of George III was thoroughly German.

Marriage

In 1759, George was smitten with Lady Sarah Lennox, sister of Charles Lennox, 3rd Duke of Richmond, but Lord Bute advised against the match and George abandoned his thoughts of marriage. “I am born for the happiness or misery of a great nation,” he wrote, “and consequently must often act contrary to my passions.” The prominent Lennox Family of Richmond were illegitimate descendants of King Charles II of England.

Lady Sarah Lennox

In 1753 attempts were made by King George II to marry his grandson George, Prince of Wales to Princess Sophie-Caroline of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, eldest daughter of Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, and his wife, Philippine-Charlotte of Prussia, sister of Friedrich II the Great of Prussia.

This was an attempt to improve relations with Prussia, as Sophie-Caroline was a niece of Friedrich II of Prussia and George II needed Prussian troops to help offset the alliance between France and Austria that had occurred as a result of the Diplomatic Revolution. Prince George’s mother, Augusta, Dowager Princess of Wales, thwarted George II’s plans, however, which increased tensions within the British royal family. Sophie-Caroline married Friedrich, Margrave of Bayreuth, instead.

Princess Sophie-Caroline of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel

Though this match was not to be, Sophie-Caroline’s brother Charles II, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, married George’s sister Princess Augusta in 1764, and George III’s son George IV married their daughter Caroline of Brunswick, thus continuing the close ties between the two houses.

The following year, at the age of 22, George succeeded to the throne when his grandfather, George II, died suddenly on 25 October 25, 1760, two weeks before his 77th birthday. The search for a suitable wife intensified. On September 8, 1761 in the Chapel Royal, St James’s Palace, the King married Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, whom he met on their wedding day.

Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was the youngest daughter of Duke Charles-Ludwig-Friedrich of Mecklenburg (1708–1752; known as “Prince of Mirow”) and of his wife Princess Elisabeth-Albertine of Saxe-Hildburghausen (1713–1761). Mecklenburg-Strelitz was a small north-German duchy in the Holy Roman Empire.

Young George III

A fortnight after the wedding on September22, both were crowned at Westminster Abbey. George remarkably never took a mistress (in contrast with his grandfather and his sons), and the couple enjoyed a genuinely happy marriage until his mental illness struck.

They had 15 children—nine sons and six daughters. In 1762, George purchased Buckingham House (on the site now occupied by Buckingham Palace) for use as a family retreat. His other residences were Kew Palace and Windsor Castle. St James’s Palace was retained for official use. He did not travel extensively and spent his entire life in southern England. In the 1790s, the King and his family took holidays at Weymouth, Dorset, which he thus popularised as one of the first seaside resorts in England.

George III’s life and reign, at 59 years, which was longer than those of any of his predecessors at the time, were marked by a series of military conflicts involving his kingdoms, much of the rest of Europe, and places farther afield in Africa, the Americas, and Asia. Early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years’ War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britain’s American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence. Further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.

George III, King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, King of Hanover

In the later part of his life, George had recurrent, and eventually permanent, mental illness. Although it has since been suggested that he had bipolar disorder or the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established. His eldest son, George, Prince of Wales, ruled as Prince Regent until his father’s death, when he succeeded as George IV. Historical analysis of George III’s life has gone through a “kaleidoscope of changing views” that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them.

Changing Titles.

The nation went through many changes through his reign and his titles reflected these changes.

In Great Britain, George III used the official style “George the Third, by the Grace of God, King of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, and so forth”. In 1801, when Great Britain united with Ireland, he dropped the title of King of France, which had been used for every English monarch since Edward III’s claim to the French throne in the medieval period. His style became “George the Third, by the Grace of God, King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Defender of the Faith.”

In Germany, he was “Duke of Brunswick and Lüneburg, Arch-Treasurer and Prince-Elector of Hanover of the Holy Roman Empire” (Herzog von Braunschweig und Lüneburg, Erzschatzmeister und Kurfürst des Heiligen Römischen Reiches) until the end of the empire in 1806. He then continued as Duke until the Congress of Vienna declared him “King of Hanover” in 1814.